Qass 
Book 



a 

1^ 



/ 

RUDIMENTARY TREATISE 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING; 



Wkix\t Illustratt'cins. 



G.- m ANDREWS, C.E. 



VOL. I. ' ' .V ) 
BUILDIXGS. 

JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN 



MDCCCLII. 



LONDON: 

STEVENS AND CO., PEINTERS, BELL YARD, 
TEMPLE-BAE. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction . . . * <, I 



CHAPTER I. 

Choice of situation for erecting the Steading 

Prize Essays and Plans of the Royal Agricultural Society 

Steading for a 400-Aere Farm 

Lord Torrington's Model Homestead 

Steading at Liscard, Cheshire 

Cow Byres ..... 
Mr. Timm's Farm, near Frimley^ Surrey 
A Scotch Steading .... 
Design for a large Steading . 



CHAPTER II. 



Accommodation for Stock 
Stables . 

The Cart- Horse Stable 

Drainage 

Ventilation 

Boxes and Stalls 

The Bullock-fattening Shed 

Cow Byres 

Calf Pens 

The Piggery 

Sheep Sheds . 



vi 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Bull House . . . . . . 74 

Cattle Hammels . . . . .74 

Cattle Infirmary , . , . . . 74 

Straw Yards , . . . . .75 

Poultry House . . . . . . 78 

Pigeon Houses . , . . .79 

Rabbitery . . . . . . 80 

The Apiary . . . . . .80 

CHAPTER III. 

Rick Yard . . . . . .81 

The Barns . . . . . . 83 

The Granary . . . . . .89 

The Chaff House . . . . . . 90 

Root Stores . . . . .91 

Root-washing House . . . . . 92 

Boiling House . . . . .92 

Fuel House . . . . . . 93 

The Dung House . . . . .93 

Manure House . . . . . . 95 - 

Liquid-manure Tanks . . . . .95 

Table showing the Quantity of Excavation, the Number of Bricks 

required to stein the Tank, and Content in Gallons for every 

Foot in depth . . . . . . 97 

The Dairy . . . . . .98 

The Churning Room . . . . . 99 

The Scalding Room . . . . .99 

The Cheese Room . . . . . 99 

Wool Room . . . . .101 

Shepherd's Store > . . . . 103 

Engine House ..... 103 

Smith's and Carpenter's Shop . . . . 104 

Implement House ..... 104 

Cart Lodge . . . ... 106 

Drainage ...... 106 

Drinking Ponds . . . . . . 107 

Farmer's Residence ..... 108. 



CONTENTS. 



vii 



PAGE 

Kilns . . . . . . . 109 

CHAPTER IV. 

Small Farms . . . . ' .113 

Farm Labourers' Cottages . . . . . 117 

Sparred Floors ..... 121 

Sparred Floors for Cattle Sheds . . . .121 

CHAPTER V. 

Building Materials . . . . .125 

Bricks . . . . . 127 

Burned Ballast . . . .128 

Timber . . . . . . 129 

Lime and Cement . . , . ,130 

Cement . . . , , . 131 

Thatched Roofs . . . . .131 

Hollow Bricks . . . . . . 135 

CHAPTER VL 

The Excavator . . . . .140 

The Bricklayer . . , . , , 141 

Pan Tilings ...... 142 

Plain Tiling . . . . . . 143 

The Mason ... . . . . 143 

Carpenter . . . . , , 144 

The Plumber ....... 145 

Zinc . . , . . . . 146 

Glazier . , . . . . 145 

The Smith . . , . . . 147 

The Sawyer ...... 147 

The Millwright . . . , . . 147 



INTRODUCTION. 



THE critical position in which the Agriculturists of this coun- 
try are now placed, with prices so low as to yield them no 
return for their year of labour, is surely a time when it is 
especially necessary to give the most attentive consideration 
to any matter that may tend to preserve to the landlord the 
present value of his property, and to the tenant farmer his 
position in life, and the capital he has embarked in agricul- 
tural operations. Although the farmers have been in many 
cases most unjustly condemned by their political opponents 
for the manner in which they carry on their business, yet 
there is one point upon which they are particularly open to 
censure, and that is, the generally miserable state of the pre- 
mises and buildings that form their steading. 

That they are nearly always antiquated and unfit for the 
purpose, is a fact that no farmer will deny ; and the object 
the author has in this little book, is to supply him with such 
necessary data that their reconstruction may be upon the most 
approved principles. The author having had considerable 
experience in the erection of agricultural buildings and ma- 
chinery, and having visited most parts of England, and much 
of the Continent, with a view to make himself thoroughly 
acquainted with all that is new and good upon the subject, 
will endeavour to place before the reader, in the most concise 
form, the result of his own experience and investigations. 

The re- erection of farm buildings is a most important point 

*B 



2 



INTRODUCTION. 



to be settled between landlord and tenant. For tbe latter lias 
a right to demand that he shall be furnished with proper 
offices suitable for his business, and so arranged that the cost 
of his laboar shall be reduced to the lowest possible point, 
his stock be preserved in the highest state of health and com- 
fort, and no one particle of his property be wasted or lost, 
which must be the case if he is without means to preserve the 
quality and bulk of the whole of his sohd and liquid manure. 

Until this is done on every farm in England the agricul- 
turists must be considered as in the rear of their rivals, the 
manufacturers, who economize everything, and leave no stone 
unturned to discover anything that may facilitate their opera- 
tions ; and scarcely a day passes but something is improved 
and rendered more perfect. Now this is not the case with 
the agriculturist ; he does know how to improve a thing, and 
yet does not do it, but leaves it for years in the same inefficient 
state, and even allows it to wear out, and then reconstructs it 
in the same manner. 

To instance this, are not nine-tenths of the farm steadings 
in England without gutters to the eaves of their buildings ? 
And does not water from these buildings wash out half the 
value of the manure? (And T have just seen a set of farm 
buildings re-erected in Norfolk, where there is a most excel- 
lently constructed brick drain made to carry off the liquid 
manure into the adjoining brook !) Now no farmer conld be 
found who would not condemn this state of things, as being 
bad ; and in no instance is the want of buildings and proper 
arrangements more conspicuous than in the extraordinary 
want of care in the preservation of manure always observable 
in old steadings. 

Notwithstanding all farmers know well the value of 
manure, and that upon the quantity and quality of it depend 
the amount and value of crop they will get, they never take 
the smallest precaution to preserve the quality, and seldom 
the quantity. It is usual to turn the dung out from the 



INTRODUCTION. 



3 



stables and byres into heaps in a yard, wbicb yard always 
slopes in some direction in which there is a drain, or open 
outlet, with a constant stream running through, — in wet wea- 
ther, a full, dark-coloured miniature torrent ; and in dry, a 
sluggish little stream, thick, dark, and brown. This for some 
reason is generally turned into the horsepond ; hence the par- 
ticularly unwholesome look of the drinking places about old 
farmeries, appearing as if the farmer was anxious to return 
a part of his liquid manure into the stomachs of the animals 
from which it came. 

Now, if a farmer, upon receiving the value of his crop at a 
distant market, found on reaching home that he had been 
distributing along the way a considerable portion of the coins he 
had received, through a small hole which he had inadvertently 
suffered to exist in his pocket, he would be pretty sure, after 
this discoveiy, to have this hole immediately mended, to pre- 
vent the recurrence of a similar loss. The manure of the 
farm is the farmer's money ; for upon his economy in, and 
judicious management of this, depend the quantity and value 
of his crops : and it makes very little difference w^hether you 
abstract the means of producing a crop, or the value of a 
crop when produced. 

" For you do take my life, 
When you do take the means whereby I live." — Shakspeare. 

That an entirely new, simple, and scientific steading is 
i necessary to most farms, cannot for a moment be doubted. 
The last fifty years have so entirely changed the system of 
agriculture in this country, that the crazy and ill-contrived 
buildings of existing steadings do not afford nearly sufficient 
accommodation for the farmer to carry on his operations, 
with the despatch and severe economy now positively neces- 
sary. Apparently, want of room would be the last fault to 
find with the old steadings, for they appear much larger than 
the new ones ; but this arises from the enormous amount of 

*B 2 



4 



INTRODUCTIOX. 



bam room formerly thought necessary, for besides these huge 
barns, and a small, ill-ventilated, dark, and therefore always 
very dirty stable, with an equally wretched cowshed, there is; 
in reality, no accommodation whatever. Hence we see the 
agricultural implem-ents, carts, waggons, &c,, lying about un- 
protected from the weather, in whatever place they were last 
used. The pigs are in the cow byre, the cows are in the piggery, 
and the whole place knee-deep in water. It will not be an 
isolated case when you find a farm in this state — it is the rule 
rather than the exception. All homesteads of the old school 
partake of it^ more or less ; and that they should remain sc 
is the more remarkable, from the fact that, in other depart- 
ments of agricultural science, the greatest improvements have 
been made of late years ; for, in every county in England, we 
find that most extensive and scientific drainages have been, 
or are being executed. The unwholesome fens and swamps 
of Cambridge and Lincolnshire have been rendered salu- 
brious and fertile, and the formerly barren sands of Norfolk 
now produce the richest crops. The great chalk plain of 
Wiltshire, the name of which was associated with ideas of 
naked sterility, is now almost a garden. The very sea has 
been robbed of its bed. the com grows where the waves 
broke ; and to assist this work, the manure has been fetched 
from the antipodes. 

I must not be understood to say that there are no scientific 
and efficient farm steadings in England ; on the contrary, ex- 
amples of such are to be found in almost every county : all I 
intend to assert is, that they are the exception, and not the 
rule, while in Scotland the reverse is the case — the good 
being there the rule, and the bad the exception. Indeed, to 
deny the existence of good steadings in England, would be 
doing a great injustice to those enlightened noblemen and 
gentlemen who have spent so much of their time and money 
in carrying out the most elaborate systems of farm steadings, 
and who have called to their aid the most scientific and ex- 



INTRODUCTION. 



5 



perienced men of the day, at an outlay from which they can 
never expect such returns as those who are wise enough to 
act upon their results, without having to pay such a price as 
they did for their acquisition. 

It is a curious circumstance that farmers should have availed 
themselves so little of the examples before their eyes, and, 
what is still more remarkable, I have generally found them 
averse to these model steadings. This I know to be the case, 
as I have at all times and opportunities consulted farmers of 
intelligence and character for success in agricultural pursuits 
upon this point, with a view to discover their grounds of ob- 
jection ; and the first of these, as may naturally be expected, is 
the enormous outlay which has generally taken place in erect- 
ing them, and in this they are perfectly right ; too much money 
has invariably been spent, consequent, I think, upon the fol- 
lowing causes : — First, that the model steading has generally 
been built upon very small farms, to which it bore no propor- 
tion, for I do not think that a perfect steading, constructed 
upon the most approved principles, and having all the advan- 
tages of fixed machinery and steam power, can be applied (to 
pay) to a lesser farm than one of 400 or 500 acres under the 
plough ; for it happens that the most costly part of the stead- 
ing would be equally required on a farm of 200 acres — length- 
ening the stables and cattle sheds would adapt the same 
steading for 500 acres, inasmuch as machinery must be of cer- 
tain dimensions to be effective and economical. As to threshing 
and store barns, I believe they will be made of one size, both 
on large and small farms ; that is, they will be made to con- 
tain about one day's work of the machine, and not, as for- 
merly, to house the whole produce of the farm. 

xlnother reason why the farmer does not appreciate model 
steadings, is his ignorance of the extraordinary saving effected 
by having the machinery fixed and of superior construction — 
at least one-third of the power usually consumed is lost in 
friction and in the want of proper fitting-up in the working 



6 



INTRODUCTION. 



parts. Althougli advocating a superior description of agricul- 
tural machinery and offices, we must not fall into the error 
which has generally been committed of drawing an ordinary- 
hut very unjust parallel between the farmer, employing ma- 
chinery for facilitating the operations of agriculture, and the 
manufacturer, who uses the same for the production of the 
staple manufactures ; and it is a common thing for those who 
make the comparison to complain of the farmer's want of ap- 
preciation of good machinery and buildings, because he does 
not choose to go to the same expense in constructing his pre- 
mises, and procuring the same high finish in his machinery 
and working gear as the manufacturer does. For this he has 
a sufficient reason, for it must be borne in mind that a manu- 
facturer, in constructing his premises, calculates that these 
premises, and the machinery contained in them, will be con- 
stantly occupied and in use, — therefore, in the construction of, 
say his spinning machine, no expense is spared to get the most 
beautiful and perfect machine, (the spindle, with its warve 
and ffier, is not less carefully made and highly finished for its 
purpose, than is the escapement of a watch) ; and the manu- 
facturer acts wisely in doing so, for this implement is employed 
from sunrise to sunset, for days, weeks, months, and years, in 
pulling down and twisting the miles of tiny thread, every inch 
of which is producing to the manufacturer a minute profit. 
But the farmer is totally differently situated with regard to his 
machinery, for he only employs his different machines at parti- 
cular seasons of the year, and then only for a short time. 
The machine is then laid aside till the recurrence of the season 
again brings it into use. 

Now it is quite evident that a farmer would not be justified 
in going to the same expense in the construction and fitting up 
of his machinery, as the manufacturer does ; the farmer's being 
only a producing machine for say one-third of the year, and he 
not being so dependent upon time as the manufacturer, for 
when his cron is prepared he has no further use for his ma- 



INTRODUCTION. 



7 



chine till next harvest ; whereas every moment of speed gained, 
and atom of work done additionally, by the manufacturer, is 
so much increased profit in the year — that portion of his work 
being finished so much quicker, and the next consequently 
begun so much sooner. It is in this latter point that he differs 
so much from the farmer, who, as above stated, however 
quickly he finishes his portion of work, cannot begin the next 
similar one until the following year. This is a point that has 
been very much lost sight of in the construction of what are 
called model, or example, farms, and hence we see so many 
attempts injudiciously made to apply the architecture and 
machinery of the factory to agricultural purposes. 

Although it is no part of the object of this book to enter 
into any discussion respecting the political controversy that 
now agitates the agricultural world, yet, as the terms high and 
low farming are constantly occurring, a few words may not be 
out of place to define the sense in which they are used in this 
work ; for it unfortunately happens that farmers are apt to 
associate high farming with the practice of those gentlemen,^ 
who, having pockets which overflow with wealth derived from, 
other sources, erect the most costly places imaginable, and 
carry on their agricultural operations regardless of the great 
question whether it will pay or not, having only one end in 
view, which is to carry out their designs in the most perfect 
manner; and practical farmers, having their living to get,^ 
know well that if they adopted such practices, they would 
never get a living. Hence what is called high farming is, 
from this cause, looked at by the farmers with considerable 
caution. Real high farming consists in developing to the 
utmost the capabilities of the land, by employing on it as 
much capital as will effect that purpose ; in economizing and 
preserving every atom of manure ; in reducing all expenses of 
labour, &c., to a minimum, and in increasing the produce, and 
consequently the profit, to a maximum. This high farming 
is that which every farmer will soon have to adopt ; that is, he 



8 



INTRODUCTION. 



must occupy only as mucli land as be can cultivate thoroughly 
well, and if his holding be large and his capital small, he must 
either increase the latter or diminish the former ; for it is quite 
certain, independent of the question of free trade or protection, 
that if high farming will not pay, low farming cannot. 

Supposing a farmer has a quantum of manure, not more 
than sufficient for one field, it would be a most injudicious 
proceeding on his part to spread that quantity over two, as he 
would therefore be paying double the amount of rent, taxes, 
tithe, &c., of another man who confined his operations to only 
one field. 

Now are not at least two-thirds of the farmers in England 
following precisely this injudicious line of conduct, by occupy- 
ing a great deal more land than they make manure for ? In 
other words, farming very low, and losing sight of this import- 
ant fact, that there are certain constant outgoings common to 
both a large and small crop grown on the same number of 
acres. The farmer therefore who doubles his crops, without 
increasing his ground^ in effect halves those constant expenses, 
and therefore, hy farming high, secures to himself a peculiar 
source of profit, not available to the low farmer. Admitting 
that this principle is true, and that if we are to farm at all we 
must farm high, both from necessity and principle, we are 
again brought back to the original subject of farm buildings, 
which it is the object of this work to describe and discuss. 



6 



CHAPTER 1. 

CHOICE OF SITUATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE 
BUILDINGS THAT FORM THE HOMESTEAD. 



CHOICE OF SITUATION FOR ERECTING THE STEADING. 

The choosing of the site upon which to build the steading is a 
very important matter, and requires much more consideration 
than would at first appear, for if it has been judiciously chosen 
a vast annual amount of labour may possibly be saved. 

Theory would at once point out the centre of the farm as the 
spot best suited, but the locality (in nearly all cases) will afford 
some peculiar advantages that will settle the question ; for in- 
stance, if water power can possibly be obtained, either from the 
natural fall of any river, or from the penning up of any little 
brook, or from the drainage of the land (as has been done in 
some cases), then it ought to decide the position of the steading 
at once, as there is scarcely any advantage that can equal a 
motive power from a natural fall of water, not that an inconve- 
nient spot in other respects should be fixed on, merely because 
the fall happens to be there, as there are many simple contri- 
vances of engineering for carrying the fall of water to the mill, if 
it is inconvenient to take the mill to the water. 

Facility of access to the turnpike road, or proximity to a rail- 
way station, or canal wharf, or the opportunity to discharge the 
liquid manure from the tanks to some distant spot on the farm 
by its own gravity, and so avoid the great labour of pumping : 
all these, and others, are circumstances that will aifect the 
choosing of a site. 

But there are certain desiderata that must be sought, and 
had under all circumstances, such as a tolerably level piece 

*B 3 



10 



CHOICE OF SITUATION FOR 



of ground, or one gently sloping towards the south; this must 
be perfectly dry, or be artificially made so. Proximity to 
marshes, ponds of stagnant water, or sluggish rivers, should be 
avoided ; and a plentiful supply of good water must be at hand, 
and the means exist for procuring an efficient drainage of all 
the water from above, or from the adjacent land. 

If the steading be placed on a bed of gravel, or sand, it vnll 
be an advantage. 

Having enumerated the chief points to be attended to in the 
choice of the site, we must next consider the most judicious 
arrangement of the buildings, yards, &c., that form the home- 
stead of the farm. 

The homestead, or onstead, consists of the dwelling-house of 
the farmer, with the buildings and premises attached, and used 
by him in carrying on the various operations in his business 
requiring sheltered or enclosed offices. Scotch writers upon 
agricultural subjects generally use the word steading, in refer- 
ence to all the offices required for the rearing and fattening of 
stock, and preparation of crops, and other produce of the farm 
for market, in which sense it is used throughout this book. 

The buildings and offices necessary for a perfect steading on 
a mixed husbandry farm, will consist of — 

Rick Yard. Engine House. 

Straw Yard. Implement House. 

Threshing Barn. Cart Lodge. 

Granary. Dung House. 

Stables. Manure House. 

Fatting Sheds. Manure Tanks. 

Cow Byres. Wool Room. 

Sheep Shed. Shepherd's Room. 

Cattle Courts. Poultry House and Yard. 

Calf Pen. Infirmary. 

Piggery. Hammels. 

Chaff House. Bulls' Hammels. 

Root Stores. Dairy. 

Turnip House. Cheese Room. 

Washing House. Tool House. 

Boiling House. Farmer's Residence. 

Boiler House. Carpenter's Shop. 

Fuel House. Smithy. 



ERECTING THE STEADING. 



Besides these offices there are other subsidiary buildings 
required that are not included in the above list, which form 
what is called the homestead, but will be found treated of 
iinder a separate head. 

Having chosen the site of the proposed steading, the next 
step is to construct the most judicious form of ground plan, 
and this point is deserving of the most serious consideration. 

It is a point to which all eminent agriculturists have de- 
Voted much of their attention, and the result of their study is, 
that no fixed form of ground plan will apply equally well to 
.all descriptions of farms, or to all localities ; but there are 
certain fixed principles equally applicable to all, and those 
principles ought to govern the arrangement of any plan in 
any locality. It will, therefore, be wise here to consult the 
opinion of the first authorities who have written upon the 
subject. 

Mr. Stephens (the author of one of the most complete, ela- 
borate, and valuable works in the English language, in " The 
Book of the Farm," treats of the subject of homesteads at 
great length, and, with the same care that he has bestowed 
upon every department of the noble science of agriculture), lays 
down the following principles, to be kept in view in designing 
the steading. 

"(5.) The leading princijple on which these arrangements 
are determined is very simple, and it is this : — 

^' 1 . Straw, being the bulkiest article on the farm, and in 
daily use by every kind of live stock, and having to be car- 
ried and distributed in small quantities by bodily labour, 
though a heavy and unwieldy substance, should be centrically 
placed, in regard to all the stock, and at a short distance 
from their respective apartments. The position of its receptacle, 
the straw ham, should thus occupy a central point of the stead- 
ing ; and the several apartments containing the live stock should 
be placed equidistant from the straw barn, to save labour in 
carrying of straw to the stock. 2. Again applying the prin- 



!2 



CHOICE OF SITUATION FOR 



ciple that so bulky and heavy an article as straw should in 
all circumstances be moved to short distances, and not at all, 
if possible, from any other apartment but the straw barn, 
the threshing machine^ which deprives the straw of its grain, 
should be so placed as at once to throw the straw into the 
straw barn. And, in further application of the same prin- 
ciple, the stack yard, containing the unthreshed straw with 
its corn, should be placed contiguous to the threshing ma- 
chine. Lastly, the passage of straw from the stack yard to the 
straw barn, through the threshing machine, being directly pro- 
gressive, it is not an immaterial consideration in the saving of 
time to place the stack yard, threshing mill, and straw barn, 
in a right line. 

" (6.) Different classes of stock require different quantities 
of straw to maintain them in the same degree of cleanliness 
and condition. Those classes which require the most should, 
therefore, be placed nearest the straw barn. 1 . The younger 
stock requiring most straw, the courts which they occupy 
should be placed contiguous to the straw barn ; and this can 
be most effectually done by placing the straw barn so as a 
court may be placed on each side of it. 2. The older or 
fattening cattle, requiring after the young stock the largest 
quantity of straw, the hammels which they occupy should 
be placed next in propinquity to the straw barn. 3. Horses 
in the stables, and cows in the byres, requiring the smallest 
quantity of straw, the stables and byres may be placed 
the farthest in distance from the straw barn. The relative 
positions of these apartments are thus determined by the 
comparative use of the straw. 4. There are two apart- 
ments of the steading whose positions are necessarily deter- 
mined by that of the threshing machine — the one is the 
upper barn or threshing barn, which contains the unthreshed 
corn from the stack yard ready for threshing by the mill ; 
and the other the corn barn, which is below the mill, and 
receives the com immediately after its separation from the 



ERECTING THE STEADING. 



13 



straw by the mill to be cleaned for market. 5. It is a great 
convenience to have the granaries in direct communication 
with the corn barn, to save the labour of carrying the clean 
corn to a distance when laid up for future use. To confine 
the space occupied by the steading on the ground as much as 
practicable for utility, and at the same time ensure the good 
condition of the grain, and especially this latter advantage, 
the granaries should always be elevated above the ground, 
and their floors then form convenient roofs for either cattle or 
cart sheds. 6. The elevation which granaries give to the 
building, should be taken advantage of to shelter the cattle 
courts from the north wind in winter ; and for the same rea- 
son that shelter is cherished for warmth to the cattle, all the 
cattle courts should always be open to the sun. The courts 
being thus open to the south, and the granaries forming a 
screen from the north, it follows that the granaries should 
stretch east and west on the north side of the courts, and it 
has been shown that the cattle courts should be placed one 
on each side of the straw barn ; it also follows that the straw 
barn, to be out of the way of screening the sun from the 
courts, should stand north and south, or at right angles to 
the south of the granaries. 7. The fixing of the straw barn 
to the southward of the granaries, and, of course, to that of 
the threshing machine, necessarily fixes the position of the 
stack yard to the north of both. Its northern position is 
highly favourable to the preservation of the corn in the 
stacks. 8. The relative positions of these apartments are 
very differently arranged from this in many existing stead- 
ings ; but I may safely assert, that the greater the deviation 
from the principle inculcated in paragraphs (5) and (6) in 
the construction of steadings, the less desirable they become 
as habitations for live stock in winter." 

I have not been able to discover, on looking over nearly all 
that has been written upon the subject, anything so clear, or 
any advice so judicious, as that here given by Mr. Stephens ; 



14 



CHOICE OF SITUATION FOR 



in fact, I observe that most of those who have written upon 
the subject, since the pubUcation of his " Book of the Farm,'* 
have adopted his ideas, and often his language, and that, too, 
without acknowledging from whence they obtained it. 

But although I place such great value upon Mr. Stephens's 
advice up to this point, I do not follow him any further in 
the carrying out of his details, or the accommodation for each 
particular head of stock. His plan may be right for the 
Scotch system of agriculture, but certainly it is not the most 
judicious for England, especially for the southern counties. 
The chief objection I have to it is its immense cost ; and I 
am inclined to think that it is only fit for the good old times 
of high prices, and that we must look in another direction for 
assistance in the present hour of need (when a quarter of 
wheat only fetches 36*., and the markets falling), for some- 
thing cheap ; in fact, such a one as a landlord will not mind 
erecting, and a tenant can afford to pay for : and if cheapness 
is the object, we cannot do better than look to Mr. John 
Caird of Baldoon, who gives us a design for a farmery,* em- 
bracing all the valuable improvements imported from Auch- 
ness, and capable of accommodating 10 horses and 80 head 
of cattle in stalls, besides implement house, barn, granary, 
straw and chaif house, clover and turnip house, boiling house, 
covered dung house, and tank for saving liquid manure, pig 
and poultry houses, all for 6121. This amount of accommo- 
dation for such a sum would be, indeed, a saving, as I know 
of no steading of the same size that has been erected for any- 

* The principal difference between the Scotch plan of constructing 
farm steadings and the English is, that in the former the greater part of 
the stock are kept in hammels, which are small sheds with yards attached, 
containing one or several heads of stock ; this necessarily causes a much 
larger quantity of walling, and consequently the cost of the steading is 
much increased. In England a system of continuous undivided sheds 
"has been adopted instead, and no disadvantage has arisen in consequence 
'th&t would at all justify the extra expense incurred in the former plan. 



ERECTING THE STEADING. 



15 



thing like the sum; for about 1000^. to 1500/., is the usual 
cost of such sized farmeries when constructed with good ma- 
terials, workmanship, and in an economical manner — unless 
some unusually cheap local material is at hand — I am inclined, 
then, to think that Mr. Caird has under-estimated the cost 
considerably, or, that he was alluding to particular localities 
in Ireland ; but the latter cannot be the case, as he makes a 
direct comparison between his own design and that of archi- 
tects generally, Mr. Stevens and others, and undertakes to save 
one-third. I have taken the trouble to extract the quantities 
with considerable care, and moneying them out at the lowest 
prices I know of work being done for. 
The cost of erection stands thus : — 

£ s. d. 

171 cubic yards of excavation to foundations and tank, at 4<?. 2 17 0 
46 rods reduced brickwork . . at 8/. 10*. 391 0 0 

127^ square Countess slating . . . at 21*. 133 17 6 

510 run of ridge tiles . . . . at 2<?. 4 5 0 

5 17 superficial yds. of paving to cattle houses and stable, at 1*. 25 17 0 
1287 cubic feet timber in rafters, joists, &c., sawn, at 1*. 6d. 96 10 6 
227 cubic feet timber wrought stall posts, &c. at 1*. 9d. 19 7 3 
Manger complete and fixed at per foot run, 1*. 6d. 4 2 6 

127 i square slate laths . . at 7«. 6<?. 47 16 3 

3H square barn and granary flooring, 1^ thick at SOs. 47 5 0 
4 square 1 -inch flooring . . at 26*. 5 4 0 

551 superficial l-inch ledged door . at 4rf. 9 3 8 

750 superficial 1| wrought boarding between stalls, and to 

form straw- cutting room . . at 5i?. 15 12 6 

50 run of hay rack . , . at 1*. 2 10 0 

75 superficial yds. of render in cement to inside of tank, at 8d. 2 10 0 
30 superficial yards of tile paving to feeding troughs, at 2s. 6d, 3 15 0 
21 cwt. 1 qr. 15 lbs. of 5 lb. milled lead in valleys, gutters, &c. 

at 23*. 4d. 24 18 IH 
84 superficial of sashes, glazed . .at 1*. 6d. 6 6 0 



£841 18 H 



Eight hundred and forty-one pounds, then, is the cost 



16 



CHOICE OF SITUATION FOR 



of Mr. Caird's farmery, erected in the most economical man- 
ner ; but in what state is this steading after this amount has 
been expended upon it ? Why, not in any way complete or 
fitted for occupancy ; for the yards are unpaved and unformed, 
the clay, or whatever soil the erection might be placed upon, 
is in the state it was when last used, which might have been 
as an arable field. There are no gutters to any of the build- 
ings, or rain-water pipes, or water drains to carry it clear of 
the manure tank. The whole of the exterior wood work is 
unpainted, and there are no boundary fences or gates to the 
yards, and scarcely any fixtures of any kind, but the mere shell 
of a place — undrained, unpainted, and unenclosed. Let us 
finish it, then, and add to the former outlay of 970?. the neces- 



sary works required to make itr tenable, and which consist 


01 


the following, viz. : — 














£ 


s. 


d. 


^rod superficial reduced brickwork to rain-water tank, atS/.lO^. 


4 


0 


0 


15^ yards superficial render in cement to ditto 


at Sd. 


0 


10 


4 


60 feet run inch lead pipe, to supply in bullock sheds 


at 6d. 


1 


10 


0 


2 f draw-off cocks 


at 2*. 


0 


4 


0 


230 yards run 3-inch eaves guttering 


at 3d. 


2 


17 


6 


40 yards run 2-inch iron rain-water pipe 


at 5d. 


0 


16 


8 


No. 12 heads at Is. lOd., 12 shoes at 1*. 




1 


14 


0 


167 yards run drain from ditto under ground 


at 1^. 


8 


7 


0 


900 yards superficial paving and forming to yards 


at Is. 


45 


0 


0 


76 superficial 3-inch sills to doors 


at 7d. 


2 


4 


4 


158 yards superficial painting in 3 oils to buildings 


at 6d. 


3 


19 


0 


77 yards superficial painting in 3 oils to guttering 


at 6d. 


1 


18 


6 


No. 12 heads at Bd., 12 shoes at 6d. 




0 


12 


0 


2f rods superficial reduced brickwork to boundary walls, 








at 31. lOs. 23 


7 


6 


60 feet superficial 1^-inch gates to yard 


at Is. 


3 


0 


0 


2 oak gate-posts .... 


at 5s. 


0 


10 


0 


2 pair of hooks and bands to ditto . . 


at 2s. 


0 


4 


0 


14 yards superficial painting in 3 oils to ditto 


at 6d. 


0 


7 


0 


581 yards superficial twice lime-white to walls 


at Id. 


2 


8 


5 




£100 


6 


3 



ERECTING THE STEADING. 



17 



We have now, then, 100/. 6s. to add to the former esti- 
mate of 84U. 185. l^d., which brings the cost of the steading 
up to 94/2. 4s. 4^d., which is exceedingly low for the large 
amount of accommodation ; it is evident, then, that the form 
of this ground plan is an excellent one, as might be expected 
from Mr. Caird's practical knowledge of his profession, and 
his having had the benefit of the assistance of Mr. M'Cullock, 
of the celebrated farm of xiuchness. I considered it of im- 
portance to give an engraving of this ground plan, but was 
not so fortunate as to obtain Mr. Caird's permission. A 
leading feature in the Auchness farm, and adopted here, is 
the having a covered dung-house, which Mr. Caird describes 
as unquestionably the most important part of the whole 
steading, yet in the judges' report of the Prize Essays of the 
Royal Agricultural Society, after carefully considering the 
subject, they arrived at the conclusion that covered dung- 
houses are not always desirable. 

PRIZE ESSAYS AND PLANS OF THE ROYAL AGRICUL- 
TURAL SOCIETY. 

The Hoyal Agricultural Society of England, last year, 
offered a prize for the best essay on agricultural buildings, 
and it was awarded to Sir J. Tancred, Bart. 

The essay, plan, and details, are published in the Society's 
Journal, with others, by Mr. J. Ewart, Mr. C. Spooner, 
j architect, and John ElHott, farmer; also by John Hudson, 
Castle Acre, by Thomas Sturgess, surveyor, of Bedale, York- 
shire, and some valuable remarks by CD. Tebbutt, engineer : 
the whole forming the most valuable mass of practical inform- 
ation upon this important subject that has hitherto appeared 
in print ; and persons about to construct or improve existing 
farmeries, would do well to consult these valuable data. 

The design of Sir J. Tancred is laid out in the form of 
1 a square, and consists of three parallel ranges of buildings 
i running north and south, with others transversely on the 



18 



PRIZE ESSAYS AND FLANS OF THE 



north side, and sheep house, piggeries, aud horse hoxes de- 
tached. 

The steading accommodates 50 bullocks, 10 horses, with 
calf pens, piggery, sheep shed, ample barn room, work- 
shops, a manure depot (not covered), and every accommo- 
dation that can possibly be required for carrying on the 
business of the farm in the most economical and approved 
manner. 

The total cost of the whole, exclusive of builder's profit, 
and not including machinery of any kind, is estimated at 
1019/. Is. 8id. 



Block Plan of a Design for Steading, hy J. Ewart, Esq. 
Fig. 1. 



ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 



19 



Mr. Ewart's design is thus arranged (and is I think one of 
the best I have ever seen) : — It consists of four parallel lines 
of cattle boxes, an open yard 30 feet ^\ide, and a line of 
stabling all parallel to each other, and running north and 
south. 

The boiling house is on the north end, and in the centre of 
the lines of cattle sheds, and the threshing and straw barns 
on the north-west extremity of the whole. This plan is capa- 
ble of very considerable extension, without in any degree im- 
pairing the usefulness of any of the original buildings for the 
purpose for which they were designed, which is a very im- 
portant point to be attended to in designing the ground plan 
of a new homestead. The accommodation consists of 



Barn of two stories. 

Straw barn or fodder house, with a 

granary above it on a second 

story. 

Engine room, and shed for engine 

boiler. 
Stabling for 8 horses. 
Two loose boxes for stallions, brood 

mares, or sick horses. 
Receptacle for stable dung. 
Shed for implements. 
Turnip house, fitted with steam 

apparatus. 



Cattle lairs in a double range for 

12 fattening beasts. 
Cowhouse for 8 cows. 
A single range of cattle lairs for 12 

beasts. 
Ditto for 8 beasts. 
Calf house. 

Liquid manure tank, to which the 
moisture of the stables, cow- 
house, and calf-house xnay be 
conducted by covered drains. 

Open yard, 30 feet wide, and 

A watering trough. 



The estimated cost of this steading is a611 66 I65. lOd. In 
the same essay are also data of a plan of Lintz Hall farm, near 
Tanfield, in the county of Durham, and some valuable details 
of the construction of cattle boxes, &c., vrell worthy of at- 
tention. 

The third plan is the joint production of an architect and a 
practical farmer, Messrs. J. Elliott and W. Spooner, and, as 
might be expected, a most excellent design is the result of 
their labours. A large straw and threshing barn is placed 
at the north side of a square ; the sides, and a considerable 
portion of the centre are occupied by the accommodation 



20 



PRIZE ESSAYS AND PLANS OF THE 



for stock, consisting of loose boxes for bullocks, a lambing 
house, stables, with implement house, artificial manure house, 
shed for carts and waggons, and a large covered dung pit, 
which occupies a portion of the south side of the quadrangle. 
Down the centre are arranged lines of fatting sheds ; between 
these sheds are two lines of railway, joining at the north end, 
and being in single line through the centre of the barn, when 
they again diverge to the east and west through the rick-yard. 
The plan of this railway is most excellent, as the whole of the 
manure may be removed direct from the cattle boxes, and, as 
it is continued up to the dung-pit, by this means it would be 
a most economical manner of removing so weighty an article 
as manure. The adaptation of railways in economizing 
farm labour is a very important point, deserving of great 
consideration ; and a great deal of ingenuity is displayed 
in this design. Its use is thus described by the author : 
When the cattle are to be fed, the trucks take up their load of 
roots, cut or boiled, in the root boiling or cutting store, or the 
chaff and linseed compound for another meal, obtained each 
from their respective storehouses adjoining the rail, and pro- 
ceed on their way through the cattle boxes, giving out to each 
animal its appointed allowance. 

The trucks are again available for littering the animals, pro- 
curing the supply from the straw barn ; and when the accumu- 
lation of manure in the boxes has reached its limited height of 
increase, the trucks convey the mass of dung direct to the 
dung pit. One man could then easily, by means of the rail 
and truck, manage all these operations in a short time, so that 
the whole of the animals might receive their food with regu- 
larity. Even if the railway be not adopted, such an arrange- 
ment of building as we have shown would afford great facilities 
for feeding and littering the stock ; the inclined plane from the 
various store-houses through the cattle boxes may be still re- 
tained, and if a plank were laid down, and securely fixed in 
the centre of the passages between the feeding boxes, a man 



ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 



21 



would be able to take a good load on a long-frame wheel- 
barrow ; the expense of laying down such planks would not 
exceed 10/. 

The accommodation in this steading is for 14 horses, 50 
bullocks and cows, with calf pens, sheep shed and piggery, 
besides corn and straw barns, lambing house, boiling house, 
&c. &c., and the estimated cost is 1438Z. 16s. 

They proposed to construct the whole of the walling with 
hollow tubes of baked clay. They say that, through the kind- 
ness of the Duke of Richmond, the opportunity was recently 
afforded them of making a practical trial of this method of 
construction ; and, from experience, feel no hesitation in 
pledging themselves that, with ample strength and equal 
durability, as compared with common brick walls, their method 
of construction with these hollow tubes will effect a saving of 
one-third in the cost per rod in walling. 

The next plan is by a practical farmer, Mr. J. Hudson, of 
Castle Acre, and is on a different principle to those before 
mentioned, as in this design ample accommodation is provided 
for stock in enclosed yards, while in the former ones the prin- 
ciple has been to almost entirely dispense with, the stack-yard, 
and place the whole of the stock in boxes or stalls ; the two 
methods have both certain peculiar advantages, which will be 
more or less adopted as the situation and system of farming 
require. Mr. Hudson's ground plan is in the form of a paral- 
lelogram, lying lengthwise, east and west. On the north side 
are four yards, 64 feet square, including the sheds, which are 
1 6 feet square, open fronted, and supported by wooden posts 
set upon stone. On the south side are the cart house, stables, 
and cart sheds, with granaries over, gig house, fowl housoj 
cooking house, &c. 

The buildings to be built with bricks and covered with 
slates ; roofs, &c., Memel timber ; oak jambs, posts, &c. ; 
stone bottoms to the story posts of lodges and sheds. 

All the yards and buildings to be drained, and the water 



22 



PRIZE ESSAYS AND PLANS OF THE 



carried off by a common sewer* into a reservoir for liquid 
manure. 

The yards to be laid with a fall from each side to the centre 
to a tank, with grating thereon. 

The piggeries to be partitioned into folds, with paved floors ; 
bull and cow houses, and calves' pen, to be paved and fitted up 
with stalls and feeding manger. 

The sheds in cow and cattle yards to be fitted up with feed- 
ing cribs. The story posts to stand on brick or stone bases. 
Cart shed, story posts standing on stone bottoms. Granary 
to be made over the waggon lodge in roof, 14 feet wide. Cart- 
horse stable to be made with six loose boxes in each, to be 
fitted up with iron mangers, rack, and water trough, to be fed 
at the head. The stores to be kept in corn house, with gra- 
nary over the same. 

The riding stable to be fitted with two stalls and one loose 
box. 

The barn to be built with two floors ; the first floor to be of 
brick, and the second floor to be boarded for threshing and 
dressing corn, &c. ; the threshing to be done by machinery, 
worked by steam or horse power. 

Estimated expense, 1500Z. 

The fifth plan is by Mr. Sturgess, and is arranged in the form 
of a parallelogram, having the straw barn, threshing barn, &c., 
placed on the south side ; and four lines of buildings, lying north 
and south, between which are ample fold yards. All the neces- 
sary oflices are provided and well arranged ; there is no striking 
peculiarity distinguishing this from the others, unless it be, 
that it partakes somewhat of the plan of Mr. Hudson and the 
other three combined ; that is, the accommodation is divided 
between fatting boxes or stalls, and folding in yards, — Mr. 
Hudson having no beasts in boxes, and the former plans being 
designed specially for feeding in boxes, with little accommoda- 



* This must surely be an error in the Journal. 



HOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 



23 



, tion for stock in yards. Besides these plans are some remarks 
on agricultural buildings by Mr. Tebbutt, well worthy of 
perusal. 

The information contained in these essays is decidedly de- 
serving of the most attentive consideration, as it embodies the 
opinions of some of the most eminent agriculturists of the 
day, and all the writers are practical men, intimately ac- 
quainted with the most approved methods practised in the 
different counties of England, as well as the particular locality 
from which they write. 

The value of the essays is much enhanced by the fact that 
the authors practise in the most distant parts of England, as 
j Bedale, Southampton, Mansfield, &c. 

li It will be observed that all the writers agree in the main 
principles of laying out the buildings, and that it is much 
better to fatten stock in warm covered sheds, than in exposed 
draughty yards. Box feeding seems to be preferred to any 
other plan of housing stock. 

Lord Portman and Mr. Thompson were the judges of the 
different essays ; and Mr. Thompson, in a letter to Mr. Pusey, 
prefacing the different plans, has stated what the judges con- 
sider to be the main objects to be kept in view in making the 
decision ; this is well worthy of perusal, as the merits of the 
plans are discussed in a most impartial manner ; and the fol- 
lowing are the conclusions they have arrived at, after a careful 
investigation of the subject : — 

1st. That the communication between the different buildino-s 

o 

I of a farm should be by means of a paved or macadamized 
; yard, and not across a straw fold. 

2nd. That provision should be made for the introduction of 
loose boxes or stalls for fattening cattle. 

3rd. That small open yards with covered sheds should be 
provided for young or store cattle. 

4th. That covered manure pits are not generally advisable. 



24 



PRIZE ESSAYS AND PLANS OF THE 



STEADING FOR A 400.ACRE FARM. 

Design for a steading adapted to a farm of 400 acres, 320 
being arable, tbe remainder meadow. The stock is supposed 
to consist of a breeding flock of ewes, the produce of which 
are fatted off either as lambs or hogs ; both bullocks and 
pigs are to be bought in. 

This plan is the design of Mr. Haslam, a gentleman con- 
nected with the celebrated firm of Barrett, Exall, and An- 
drewes, agricultural engineers and implement manufacturers, 
of Reading. The leading principle proposed to be carried out 
in this design, is, that the passage of the straw shall be pro- 
gressive, from its arrival at the bam till it reaches the manure 
depot, never returning, or being unnecessarily carried about, 
which is too often the case. The stock, while fattening, are 
proposed to be kept under cover of one large roof, the build- 
ing being open throughout, and consequently may be tho- 
roughly well ventilated. The stables are conveniently placed 
in close proximity to the cart lodge, implement house, &c.; it 
is arranged for 16 horses, and divided in the centre : on each 
side of this division are funnels or shoots communicating with 
a loft above. By these funnels the corn and chaff are de- 
livered to the carter, the quantity being regulated by a slide : 
this plan has the advantage of preventing the accumulation 
of any stale food remaining, as the last portion is always used 
first. 

The sheep are housed on sparred floors of the same plan as 
Mr. Huxtable's. The hogs are similarly accommodated to 
the sheep, and the division between both hogs and sheep is 
formed of iron hurdles ; this plan being considered the most 
economical, cleanly, and healthy, by allowing a greater circu- 
lation of pure air. 

Open sheds, with small yards attached, are provided for 
voung stock and sick cattle. 

ml ~ 

The corn from the rick is thrown directly into the ma- 



ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 



25 



chine for threshing and winnowing, and passes it for home 
consumption directly to the mill, thence to the food house, 
and from there to the stock ; each time it is moved making 
a step in advance towards its ultimate destination, the 
manure pit, which is placed under the cart house, and is 

Plate II. 



10 


7 ' 












r 
















±\ 






1 





















12 


U 




















15 










:■ i: 




n 



















I 1 



3 



I a I 



TTT 



ST] 



i 




*c 



26 



LORD TORRINGTON's HOMESTEAD. 



the general receptacle for everything of such nature. The 
bam part and machinery are well arranged, the author having 
been assisted in this department by Mr. Bell, the intelligent 
foreman at Messrs. Barrett's factory. Tt consists of a six-horse- 
power steam engine, with machinery for threshing and clean- 
ing the grain, a stone mill, crushing mill, oil-cake breaker, 
straw and hay chaff cutter, and comiplete apparatus for steam- 
ing the food.* This is in every respect a good plan, and 
well considered ; but I would suggest, that neither cart nor 
implement sheds be placed over or near manure tanks, pits, 
or drains, as rapid rotting of wood, and corrosion of iron, 
must follow such a course. 

I object also to the plan of having the stock accommo- 
dated in one large building for the reasons mentioned in the 
description of the West-Peckham-farm steading. 

References to Plate. 



1. Barn and Granary. 

2. Fatting sheds. 

3. Cart-horse stables. 

4. Hog sties. 

5. Sheep pens. 

6. Accommodation foryoung stock. 

7. Gig house and nag stables. 

8. Manure pit. 

9. Implement shed. 



10. Cottage. 

11. Office. 

12. Carpenter and smith's shop. 

13. Poultry house. 

14. Ash pit, privy, and tool house. 

15. Cart shed. 

16. Cow byre. 

17. Calves pen. 



LORD TORRINGTON'S MODEL HOMESTEAD. 

A few years back a considerable deal of notice was attracted 
to a farm steading, erected by Lord Torrington at West Peck- 
ham, in the county of Kent ; and in a book written by his 
lordship, and published by Bidgway, in the year 1845, is a 
description of these farm buildings, with some useful general 
remarks on the agriculture of the county of Kent. Lord Tor- 
rington, like most persons who commence the construction of 

* The cost of the machinery by this firm, complete to the steading, is 
about 310/. 



LORD TORRINGTOn's HOMESTEAD. 



27 



model homesteads, started with a peculiar notion, upon the 
correctness of which would depend the success of the steading 
as an example to be imitated. 

This new and leading feature his lordship describes as the 
"placing the whole farmyard under one roof adjoining the 
house ; the lodges of various descriptions generally required 
being thereby dispensed with, and the farmer being enabled 
to see at all times whatever is going on, without the necessity 
of leaving his room." To effect this object he constructed, in 
the place of ordinary separate offices, one large shed, 90 feet 
long in the clear, by 54 feet wide ; the height at wall plate 1 1 
feet, and 26 feet to the top of roof ; and in this building the 
cattle are lodged, and a variety of operations are to be carried 
on. It is calculated to contain 53 head of stock ; namely, 32 
bullocks, 8 heifers, &c., in addition to whose accommodation 
there are pens for 9 calves. Now this principle cannot be 
recommended for general adoption, as on very large farms it 
could not be carried out, and to construct such immense build- 
ings is extremely injudicious and uneconomical ; for as Lord 
Torrington himself thus observes, when describing this build- 
ing, " It was a matter of considerable difficulty to know how 
to cover this large roof, its weight being so great and its ex- 
panse so considerable and for this reason it was an exceed- 
ingly injudicious proceeding to erect it, as it is most important 
in constructing farm buildings (which for reasons before men- 
tioned, will not pay the interest of money on a large outlay), 
to have them as small in one dimension as possible ; for it 
should be borne in mind in designing them, that to construct 
one building twice the width of another will much more than 
double the cost, as a tie beam for a roof 40 feet span is not 
only twice the length of one for 20 feet, but it must be much 
deeper and thicker, and the roof being much heavier, the point 
of support, the wall, must be much larger. 

Otherwise than in the injudicious construction of this large 
stock lodge, the steading at "West Peckham is an exceedingly 

*c 2 



28 



STEADING AT LTSCARD, CHESHIRE. 



good one, and the details are extremely well arranged and 
designed. Any person interested in agricultural matters will 
find a considerable amount of valuable information in Lord 
Torrington's book. 

STEADING AT LISCARD, CHESHIRE 

(erected by HAROLD LITTLEDALE, ESQ., FROM DESIGNS BY 
MR. TORR, OF RIBY, LINCOLNSHIRE). 

This is one of the most recently erected farm steadings, it 
has been visited by most of the leading agriculturists of the 
present day, and is by all considered to be one of the very 
best example steadings in the kingdom. The late Sir Robert 
Peel honoured the property with a visit, and pronounced it to 
be the most complete he had ever seen. 

Mr. Littledale's estate, upon which these buildings are 
erected, is situated in Liscard and the adjoining township of 
Wallasey, on the road from Liscard to Poulton cum Seacombe. 
It consists of an extensive range of farm buildings, including 
threshing barn, stables, piggeries, fatting and feeding sheds, 
labourers' cottages, and bailiff's house. 

The form of plan adopted is an almost perfect square, sur- 
rounded on the north, east, and west with buildings, and on 
the south having a low wall. This form and arrangement give 
it an appearance of great compactness. 

The square is intersected, east and west, by a range of build- 
ings, consisting of stables, loose boxes, straw and threshing 
barns, and granaries ; and north and south by two ranges of 
cow byres, and the principal barn. This arrangement of build- 
ings divides it into five courts and yards, as shown in the an- 
nexed plate. 

Almost in the centre of the steading is placed a substantial 
range of buildings, two stories in height (the rest are all of one 
story), which contains, on the ground floor, the straw barns, 
granary, engine house, boiling houses, cooking house, chaff 
house, &c. ; and on the floor above is placed the threshing 



j STEADING AT LISCARD, CHESHIRE. 29 

machine and separator, chaff cutters, linseed crushers, and 
j two pair of mill stones, which are placed in the granary on 
I this floor. These machines are all driven by bands from the 



Plate III,* 




* Farmer's Magazine, May, 1848. 



30 



STEADING AT LISCARD, CHESHIRE. 



motive power below. The winnowing machine is on the 
lower floor. Above the boiling house is a drying kilr, laid 
with perforated tiles, and heated with steam pipes. Adjoining 
this building is a raised tank for supplying the premises with 
water. 

On the east side of this building is placed stabling for 10 
horses, on the w-est side loose boxes, &c. The stables are 
fitted up in the most approved manner ; the mangers are of 
iron, there are no racks, the whole of the fodder being cut into 
chaff. 

Cow Byres. — The accommodation for fatting and breeding 
of oxen is in three lines of buildings, lying north and south, 
capable of containing in all 80 head of stock. 

They are most excellently arranged in stalls, the divisions of 
which are formed by placing upright two large slates, secured 
to each other and to the mangers by iron rods, which keep 
them perfectly secure in their places. 

The piggery is placed on the east side of the range, large 
and exceedingly comfortable. The feeding troughs are pro- 
vided with a swinging leaf. Above the piggery is placed the 
accommodation for poultry. 

The cattle courts are roomy and sheltered, and have liquid 
manure tanks in the centre. 

The implement house and cart sheds are placed on the north 
side, and are spacious and convenient. Adjoining is the drill 
house, carpenter's shop, and smithy. 

On the west side, at the north end, are placed root and potato 
stores, the floors of which are sunk below the level of the 
ground. The walls are filled with charcoal to act as a non- 
conductor. 

Besides these offices there are a slaughter house and curing 
room, a churning house, a compost house, a place for 
grains, &c. 

On the east side of the steading, detached from the principal 



STEADING AT LISCARD, CHESHIRE. 



31 



range, is placed the bailiff's residence, see Plan, Fig. A ; and 
j at the back of this is a range of offices enclosing a court-yard, 
i Here is situated the dairy, which is a most excellent one (and 
i will be found described under the head of Dairies), an apart- 
I ment for salting and curing meat, and numerous other pur- 
poses. 

On the south side are placed some well-arranged labourers' 
I cottages. 

I The motive power is a most excellent steam engine of 
1 0-horse power. 

The threshing machine and separator are of the most 
I approved form, and were made and fitted up by Parsons, of 
I Clyburn. 

The chaff cutters are by Mr. Corne. The whole of the 
machinery is of excellent workmanship and well fitted. 



Reference to Numbers on Plate 3. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 



Compost house. 
Bull house. 
Shippon for 16 cows. 
Ditto for 28 ditto. 
Ditto for 32 ditto. 
Manure tanks. 
Gear house. 
Milk-horse stable. 
Pigs' food. 
Piggeries. 
Ducks. 

Turkeys, geese, &.c. 

Shed for pigs. 

Shed for poultry. 

Poultry yard. 

Potato stores. 

Implement and root shed. 

Calf house. 

Loose boxes. 

Grains. 

Straw house. 

Barn. 

Engine house. 
Boiler house. 
Granary. 



26. 
27. 

28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 



Parlour. 

Stores. 
Office. 



Living room. 

Scullery. 

Dairy. 

Curing house. 
Smoking house. 
Privies. 
Ashes. 
Tubs, &c. 
Oven and Boiler. 



Smithy. 

Carpenter's shop. 
Churn house. 
Cart shed. 
Drill house. 
Slaughter house. 
Stack yard. 



Stable for 10 horses- 
Cut chaff. 

Steaming house for roots. 



Well. 



Reference A. 



32 



MR. TIMm's farm, surrey. 



Reference B. 4. Coals. 

1. Living room. ^' Ashes. 

2. Pantry and stairs. ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ 

3. Kitchen. , , . 

4. Ashes. ^' Thresning machine. 
5'. Coals.' 2. Separator. 

3. Hay cutters. 

Reference C. 4. Linseed crusher. 

1. Kitchen. 5. Drying kiln. 

2. Parlour. 6. Granary. 

3. Scullery. 7. Tank. 

MR. TIMM'S FARM, NEAR FRIMLEY, SURREY. 

Amongst the many farms claiming to be considered as a 
model or example at the present time, I know of none to 
which more properly belongs the application of that term than 
does the little farm near Farnborough, belonging to Mr. Timm, 
for he sets the best of examples to his neighbours (and no 
one's neighbours need it more than his). I believe the native 
agriculturists of the district are much indebted to him for the 
introduction to their notice of many improved implements, as 
well as systems of husbandry ; nor is it possible for the farm- 
ers of this district to be continually passing his well-ordered 
farm, with its small trim fences, clean land, and the grand 
ultimatum, heavy crops, without being struck with the fact 
that they have something to learn, and might, if they tried, 
do a great deal better than they do, if not quite so well as he 
does. 

Mr. Timm's farm is situated about a mile from the Farn- 
borough station on the South Western Railway, in the middle 
of the district geologically known as the Bagshot sand, per- 
haps the poorest description of soil in the kingdom, being 
purely a silicious sand, and not containing a single element 
besides, with which to supply nutriment to the plants growing 
upon it ; the consequence is, that nine-tenths of the whole 
district is a barren heath, not affording a bite for the nearly 
starved animals that are occasionally to be met with upon it. 

The lands of this district vary in quality more or less as they 



MR. TIMM's farm, surrey. 



33 



approach and are mixed with the London clay, the underlying 
stratum upon which the formation rests ; when much clay is 
mixed with sand, as it is about Hartford Bridge, the land 
is an easily worked, excellent loam, and lets for a high 
price. 

Mr. Timm's farm is situated upon a middle description of 
the Bagshot sand, not nearly so good as the best, nor quite so 
bad as the worst, but a soil that would be, if in a state of 
nature, of a yellow, slightly loamy sand. Very much of this 
description of soil is out of cultivation, and that which is 
cultivated, with this exception, produces only the poorest 
crops. 

Mr. Timm, then, is entitled to no small credit for growing 
regularly on such land a load of wheat to the acre, and that 

I wheat 65 lbs. to the bushel, and all other crops similar in 
quality and quantity. There is no ostenta^tious display here, as 
in some model farms I could mention ; everything is conducted 
on the most orderly and apparently ordinary manner, nothing 
is stinted and nothing wasted, and if farming can be made to 

j pay at all, it will do so here. 

i How is it now that this poor land is made to yield double, 
and in some cases treble, the amount of produce of those in the 
! neighbourhood ? Simply by farming higher (that is better), 
.i and employing as much capital as is necessary, and by keeping 
i on this small farm (I think about 250 acres) 60 head of oxen, 

350 sheep, 70 hogs, and 20 horses (12 of these at work). 
I The whole of the animals used upon this farm are of 

the choicest breeds, and are fatted to very heavy weights, 
i . The consequence of this is, that an unusually large bulk of 
manure is annually made and applied to the land in the most 
judicious manner, that being the only way that such results 
are to be obtained. 

The farm buildings, which is the point more immediately 
under our attention, have been constructed with great judg- 
ment, having a strict regard to economy. 

*c3 



34 



MR. TIMm's farm, surrey. 



Plate IV. — Ground Plan of the Steading. 




A is the threshing barn, with straw and hay barn and granary adjoining. 

B a straw yard. 

C open stalls for stock. 

D cart house and nag stables. 

E straw yard, with paved causeway round it. 

F the food cooking house, with steam boiler and steaming apparatus. 
G a range of buildings divided into stalls for bullocks, with a gangway at 
the head for feeding the animals. 



MR. TIMm's farm, surrey. 



35 



H calf pen. 

I a building containing the chaff machine, bean mill, oat crusher, Sec, 

worked from the horse gear at K. 
L hammels and small yard for sick and other stock. 
M hammels for two bulls. 
N liquid-manure tank and pump. 
O labourers* closet. 
P stack yard, 
R road. 

The yards have a raised causeway round them to facilitate 
the business of the steading, and slope towards the centre,, 
where drains are placed to carry the liquid manure to the 
tank ; the buildings are all guttered, and every means taken to 
preserve the liquid manure from waste or dilution. 

I think this ground plan, with some modifications, is well 
adapted to moderate-sized farms. The cattle sheds were con- 
structed (with a view to economize materials) exceedingly low, 
and the result is, that in summer they are inconveniently 
hot. This may be easily obviated by covering the rafters 
with thin boards (5-cut stuff), and upon them placing a 
layer of felt and the slates upon it. The felt is very cheap 
{Id. per foot), and will have the effect of keeping out the cold 
of winter as well as the heat of summer. I have lately tried 
the plan by constructing the roof of a dwelling-house in this 
manner, and found great benefit in consequence. Mr. Timm's 
farm is the only one I know of where an attempt has been 
made to farm high upon the Bagshot sand ; he has been singu- 
larly successful, and the agriculture of the district will, I am 
sure, be eventually raised higher from his example. 

A most laudable attempt is being made in the same direction 
by another gentleman in this locality, upon some of the most 
worthless land in Great Britain, being the worst of the Bag- 
shot sand before mentioned, but the liberal and vigorous sys- 
tem he is pursuing is likely to bring even it into heavy and 
good crops. 

I must not conclude an account of Mr. Timm's farm with- 



36 



SCOTCH STEADING. 



out remarking that he is fortunate in having for his haihff 
so enthusiastic and inteUigent a man in his art as Mr. Hutty. 

A SCOTCH STEADING. 

Plate V. is the ground plan of an extensive Scotch steading,* 
considered by Mr. Stephen as a good example of its kind. 

The agricultural character of Scotland stands much higher 
than that of England, for the Scotch have doubtless displayed 
more energy and ability in the management of their land than 
their southern neighbours ; nearly all great improvements in 
agricultural machinery have originated with them. The thresh- 
ing machine was invented, ploughs immensely improved, and 
the steam-engine first generally introduced for agricultural pur- 
poses, north of the Tweed. It was not likely then that while 
other departments were advancing they would leave their 
homesteads unimproved ; and consequently we see an extensive 
orderly well-regulated steading, with steam-engine attached, on 
every farm in the highly cultivated districts. 

It is from the Scotch models that the English improved 
steadings have chiefly been copied, but the more recently 
erected are improvements upon them. 

The principal difference between the Scotch plan of con- 
structing farm steadings and the English is, that in the former 
the greater part of the stock are kept in hammels, which are 
small sheds with yards attached, containing one or several 
heads of stock ; this necessarily causes a much larger quantity 
of walling, and consequently the cost of the steading is much 
increased. In England a system of continuous undivided 
sheds has been adopted instead, and no disadvantage has arisen 
In consequence that would at all justify the extra expense in- 
curred in the former plan. 

* See, for further elucidation, Mr. Stephen's valuable work, entitled 
the " Book of the Farm." 



38 



DESIGN FOR A LARGE STEADING. 



DESIGN FOR A LARGE STEADING. 

Plate I. — Isometrical view. 
Plate VI. — General plan. 

Plate VII. — Enlarged plan of threshing bam, engine 
house, cooking house, &c. 

Plate VIII, — Transverse section of threshing barn, straw 
barn, granary, &c. 

This is a design for a homestead of the largest class, where 
all the operations are carried on in the most systematic man- 
ner, and is arranged according to the principles preyiously 
laid down. 

The whole of the stock fattening for the butcher receive 
their food in stalls or boxes, while the young stock are ac- 
commodated in yards and hammels. 

The whole of the stock receive food previously prepared, by 
cooking or otherwise ; it is conveyed to them by means of 
a railway. This is rendered practicable by means of three turn- 
tables.* 

The trucks running on this railway are arranged to take the 
food direct from the coppers, the roots from the stores, the 
chaff from the machine, and the meal from the 2;ranarv or 
meal room, without any extra carriage ; it being evident that, 
by adopting this plan, a great amount of manual labour may 
be saved, as well as loss or waste, from the food being dropped 
about in passing from one place to another. The food is all 
supplied at the animals' head, in a convenient manner, from 
the rail passage, which also offers great facility for the pro- 
prietor inspecting every head of stock by a few minutes' 
walk, without dirt, inconvenience, or danger. This facihty 
for getting at the animals will be found of great advantage at 
night by the stock feeder, and prevent accidents. 

* These are so constructed as not to cost more than 41. lOs. each (see 
Second Part, on Agricultural Railways). 



DESIGN FOR A LARGE STEADING. 



39 



The straw barn is placed to receive the straw direct from 
the threshing machine ; it may be made so large as to occupy 
the entire space shown in the plan (or even more), or it may 
be reduced to any dimensions, however small, without inter- 
fering with the advantages it possesses from its situation ; that 
is, the being placed in the centre of all the stock, thereby 
offering the greatest facility for supplying all the boxes, stalls, 
hammels, yards, &c., with this bulky article. 

The horses are placed in a position inaccessible to all other 
stock, in close proximity to the supply of chaff, corn, and 
straw. 

The implement house, smithy, and shoeing place, are to- 
gether, and also join the stable. 

Everything belonging to it lies by itself, requiring neither 
the labourers connected with it to visit other parts of the 
farmery, or those connected with other departments to visit 
it ; thereby preventing all idle gossiping and waste of time 
amongst the persons employed, or the interference of any 
one person's duty with that of another. 

The granary is placed above the threshing barn and part 
of the straw barn. It is intended to receive the whole of the 
corn immediately after threshing, so that there be neither 
waste nor robbery. 

The building containing the granary is proposed to be con- 
structed in a much more substantial manner than any of the 
other of&ces ; and for this purpose, it is so arranged that all 
the most valuable portion of the property of the tenant shall 
be contained in it. (By the adoption of this plan the cost of 
the other buildings may be lowered.) 

The lower floor contains the winnowing and other apparatus 
for cleaning the corn, and tackle for raising the various articles 
to the mills above. 

The floor of this building is proposed to be sunk three feet 
below the level of the ground outside, to enable the rick-yard 



40 



DESIGN FOR A LARGE STEADING. 



•waggon to deliver tlie sheaves on a level with the threshing 
barn, and render the use of elevators unnecessary. 

The middle or stage floor is constructed in a substantial 
manner, strongly framed with timber, and upon it are placed the 
threshing machine and straw shaker, the barley hummeller, 
the smut machine, the bruising mill, oil-cake crusher, steel 
mill, and a pair of meal stones, dressing machine, &c. The 
threshing machine occupies the centre of the stage, and the 
smaller machines are placed against the walls, so as to be out 
of the way of the operation of thrashing. 

On the upper floor of this building is the granary, fitted 
with hoppers to supply the corn to the machines below. A 
sack tackle is constructed in the roof of this apartment, 
and there are sack traps to each floor for the convenience of 
hoisting the sacks. 

By the side of this building is placed the steam engine. 

The boihng house adjoining is a small detached building. 

The fuel house nearly adjoins the boiler house. 

The cooking house is next the engine-boiler house, from 
vrhence the steam is supplied for cooking the various roots, 
steaming chaif, &c. 

The meal store, cooking house, chaff house, root-washing 
house, and root stores, are close together, and from them the 
railway communication is perfect to every animal in the build- 
ing ; the chaff and corn are delivered at one end of the stable 
into a small apartment partitioned off for the purpose. 

The meal house is so situated as to be supplied by shoots 
direct from the granary. 

The straw is brought from the ricks to the threshino; barn 
by a peculiar truck* which I have invented for the purpose, 
and is designed to run on lines of rails at right angles to each 
other; this is to obviate the necessity of using turntables, 

* For description and plan of this truck, see Part II. 



DESIGN FOR A LARGE STEADING. 



41 



several of wMcli would be necessary, as the lines of ricks are 
arranged at right angles to each other, so that any particular 
rick may be got at that may be required to be immediately 
used. 

The manure is cast out from the various courts, boxes, 
stables, &c., into pits conveniently placed for the purpose, 
from whence it is carted to the middens, or to the land ; 
from beneath these pits are pipes to carry the liquid manure 
to a common receptacle, from whence it is pumped by the 
engine into a tank placed at a high level on the farm, or into 
an elevated iron tank, so that it may descend by its own 
gravity to the land when required. I consider that a great 
saving will arise by thus throwing upon the engine the whole 
labour of pumping up the liquid manure, in lieu of its being 
pumped from the tank by the carters, and carried to high 
levels in carts drawn by horses. Should this plan not be 
adopted, that is to say, of placing the tank at some distant 
spot, I would recommend that it be raised sufficiently high to 
fill the carts, (instead of being a sunk wellj) and be filled by 
the engine instead of hand labour. 



42 



DESIGN FOR A LARGE STEADING. 



Plate VI. 
Ground Flan. 




Scale, 30 feet to an inch. 



An isometrical view of this steading faces the title page of 
the book. It is proposed to construct the straw barn of open 
sparred work ; the thrashing barn and granaries as in the an- 
nexed plates, and the bullock sheds as at Plate XI., only a 
double row of beasts are on each side of the railway. 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



45 



CHAPTEE II. 
ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



The breeding, rearing, and fattening of stock are a most im- 
portant division of the business of a farmer, demanding his 
utmost care, skill, and attention. Badly bred, fed, or housed 
stock are not consistent Tvith good farming, and can never be 
made to pay. It has been before observed, that high farming 
is economy of labour and manure, and plenty of both. Now 
the economy of labour and manure, in reference to stock, 
will depend principally upon the judicious arrangement of the 
sheds, hammels, courts, &c., for the better supply of food, 
removal of the dung, and preservation of the liquid manure. 

In the old steadings no arrangements exist for securing any 
of these advantages, and the accommodation is of the poorest 
description, — small, ill-contrived, and quite unfit for the most 
approved present systems of managing stock. 

The size and arrangements of buildings for stock will, of 
course, depend a great deal upon the description of steading, 
whether for dairy, stock, or sheep farm ; but this little book 
being only an elementary treatise, we shall confine ourselves 
more particularly to mixed husbandry, of which description 
by far the larger number of English holdings are. 

The buildings and other accommodation necessary for the 
mixed-husbandry farm, to accommodate the stock, consist of 



Stables for working horses. 

Fattening sheds for bullocks. 

Byres for cows. 

Sheds and pens for calves. 

Piggeries. 

Sheep sheds. 



Hammels for voung stock and 
bulls. 

Infirmary for sick cattle. 
Yards for folding stock at night 

and in inclement weather. 
Small buildings for poultry, &c. 



46 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK* 



STABLES. 

The Cart-Horse Stable. — I have heard it asserted by 
good authorities in agricultural matters, that they could tell 
the state of everything else on the farm, if allowed to in= 
spect the cart-horse stables ; and I have no doubt of the 
fact, for I know of nothing so indicative of good farming as 
a well-ordered stable. 

The accommodation for working horses is in most old 
steadings of the most wretched description — low, dark, filthily 
dirty, and very unwholesome (from want of proper ventila- 
tion), and in consequence, farmers' horses are generally found 
in an unhealthy state (though want of food has something to 
do with this — bad farmers being proverbially bad masters to 
their horses). 

In constructing farm-horse stables, it is of the first import- 
ance to give them room enough (12 ft. in height and 16 
in width are the minimum dimensions). 

This 16 ft. width should be appropriated in the following 
manner: — 2 ft. for the manger, 7 ft. for length of stall, 1ft. 
for the drain, 4i ft. for a clear gangway behind the horses, to 
facilitate the removal of manure, and the other business of the 
stable, and 2 ft. for the projection of the harness, &c., hang- 
ing on the tacks behind each horse. 

Separate stalls should be provided for each animal by a 
partition called a travis. (On no account should a swinging 
bar be used, bad accidents often occurring from this ill- 
advised economy.) The travis should be five feet high at 
the tail post, and rise to seven feet at the head, as shown in 
Plate IX. 

The posts for supporting it should be of oak or cast-iron, 
securely fixed into the ground, and, if the construction of the 
stable admits of it, also to the joists of the floor overhead. 

The top of the travis, called the ramp rail, should also be 
made of oak, tenoned into the tail post at one end, and the 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



47 



i bond timber of the wall at the other. On the under side is a 
I groove in which the upper end of the stall boarding is placed, 
I the lower ends being secured in the same manner, with a cor- 
j responding piece of timber, or, what is better, stone, which is 
I grooved in the same manner as the ramp rail. 

The divisions of stalls are made in a variety of ways, ac- 
j cording to the description and cost of the stables. The direc- 
j tions here given apply to farm-work-horse stables, where no 
i unnecessary outlay is expected to take place. 
I The rack and manger are variously placed ; the usual plan 
I is a wooden or stone trough, extending the whole length of 
I the stable, and the rack in the same manner above — the hay 
being dropped from the loft overhead into it ; but this plan is 
liable to a variety of objections. The rack being placed over- 
head, the horse will draw and let fall among the litter (and 
therefore waste) as much as he eats. Blindness in horses 
also is frequently caused by hay-seeds falling into their eyes 
when eating from high racks ; nor can the defence of its 
producing high carriage apply in the case of work horses, as 
they are not required to hold up their heads, like carriage 
and other horses ; and generally, on returning to the stable, 
are so tired, that it is unnecessary cruelty to force them to 
feed in that way. The most approved plan is to place the 
rack low down in one angle, and the manger in the other, 
which allows of the horse eating while lying down. The 
manger is often made the whole width of the stall, sloping 
inwards towards the ground, to be out of the way of the 
horse's fore-legs. 

In the woodcuts I have not shown any rack, nor should 
ever think of using one myself ; but I know some horse- 
keepers are made quite unhappy by the sight of a stable 
without racks, as I have frequently found them putting a pile 
of hay upon the litter in one corner of a stable, although the 
horses never eat a mouthful of it. The plan now generally 
adopted, and found to answer, is to give the horse nothing but 



48 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



chaff, and very often the oats bruised and mixed with it. I 
have myself tested the merits of this plan, and shall always in 
future adopt it. When food thus prepared is placed in the 
long manger, it is necessary to put small bars across, in two or 
three places, to prevent the horse routing the food over the 
edge with his nose. 

The floor of the stable is paved in various ways, changing 
with the materials found in different localities. For a de- 
scription of these see article on Floors for Agricultural Build- ^ 
ings. 

Drainage. — The paving of the stalls should slope from \ 
each side slightly towards the centre, and from the head to 
the hind post, not more than about one inch in four feet. If . 
more than this the horse will not stand comfortably, as there 
will be a continued strain on the tendons of the hind legs. 
It has been observed, that a horse will always choose a level 
piece of ground to stand on when he is free in a grass field, 
and much more ought he to have it in a stable, which is his 
place of rest. 

Transversely to, and behind the stalls, there should be an 
open way or drain running the whole length of the stable, as 
close as convenient to the hind posts. Between each pair of 
stall posts, in the line of this drain, should be an iron grating, 
not less than a foot square in the clear, with a cesspool below, 
as shown in Plate IX. and not less than two feet deep, and 
lined with cement, from this the liquid-manure drains should 
be laid. 

Ventilation. — This is one of the most important points to 
be attended to in the construction of the lodgings of all cattle, 
but with no animal is it so important as with the horse. 

The doors and windows are usually the only apertures 
through which the exhalations from the stable can find a way 
out ; and in the winter time, when these are necessarily closed 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 49 

to keep the animals warm, the stable is found to be in a most 
unhealthy state. I cannot do better than quote Mr. Ste- 
phens's description of the general state of farmers' stables. 
He says, — It is distressing to the feelings to inhale the air 
in some farm stables at night, particularly in old steadings 
economically fitted up. It is not only warm from confine- 
ment, moist from the evaporation of perspiration, and stifling 
from sudorific odours, but cutting to the breath, and pungent 
to the eyes, from the decomposition of dung and urine by the 
heat. The windows are seldom opened ; and many can 
scarcely be opened by disuse. The roof, in fact, is suspended 
like an extinguisher over the half- stifled horses. But the evil 
is still further aggravated by a hayloft, the floor of which is 
extended over and within a foot or less of the horses' heads. 
Besides the horses being thus inconvenienced by the hayloft, 
the hay in it, through this nightly wasting and fumigation, soon 
becomes brittle, and contracts a disagreeable odour." This 
is not an exaggerated statement, as I have found work-horse 
stables in most old steadings to be in quite as bad a state as 
he describes. 

The great point to be attained in ventilating these build- 
ings is to give an ample supply of fresh air without causing a 
positive draught ; and this is best done by building into the 
wall, close to the ceiHng joists, iron air-bricks. Of these 
bricks — if the same size as an ordinary sized brick, i. e. 
9 X X 2| inches — one should be allowed for each horse ; and 
for every eight horses there should be a proper ventilator 
through the roof of not less dimensions than would contain 
36 cubic feet of air. The sides of the ventilator should be 
fitted with louvre boards, set at a very acute angle to the 
jamb. This will efl*ectually keep out all violent draughts, 
arid prevent rain and snow from beating in. At the bottom 
of the ventilator should be placed a wire-gauze flap, as 
described in the article on Ventilation, and attached to it 
a cord and pulley, by which the opening may be adjusted 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



51 



Plate X. — Cart-Horse Stables, 
Longitudinal Section. 









1 




i 










i 






1 


ill 


ill 


mm 

t 


llil 






1 




1 








lllilll 


1 'lllilll 


1 




i 1 


lllilll 


Li. 




i 













Fig. 2.— Stable Window. 




*d2 



52 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



according to the state of the weather. When these ventilators 
are used there need be no louvre boards in the windows, but 
if not, the window should then be divided into three compart- 
ments by mullions, the two side divisions being fitted with 
glass, and the centre one with louvre boards with adjusting 
rack, or as in Fig. 2. 

In a large stable I myself erected, this ventilation was found 
to answer tolerably well, the fresh air being admitted by the 
louvre boards in the windows, and the foul air emitted through 
the air bricks, two bricks being allowed for each horse ; but 
I should decidedly recommend that ventilating hoppers be 
always fitted in the roof, and the fresh air supplied through 
openings in thp lower part of the walls, the apertures covered 
with perforated zinc. By these means an equal temperature, 
with perfect ventilation, may be preserved both winter and 
summer. 

Cart-horse stable doors should be made in two halves, an 
upper and lower. A thumb-latch, and a good lock and key 
should be provided. The manner of storing and supplying 
the food to horses is rather an important point. In stables 
generally there is a large bin or chest in which the corn is kept , 
but in constructing new buildings for this purpose, it is much 
better to arrange for a small separate apartment for mixing 
and preparing the food. This is the more necessary when 
the practice is to mix the corn with chaff. 

This should be done by the bailiff or foreman, and the 
allowance delivered out to each ploughman or carter for his 
particular team of horses, thus putting an end to some of the 
malpractices so well known to exist by all persons who have 
much employed this class of men and horses. 

In this room, called the horsekeeper's room, should be 
kept, in a closet, any small necessaries occasionally required in 
the stable, and amongst these the requisite medicines, balls, 
&c., to be ready in case of horses being taken suddenly ill. 

Plates IX, and X. are the plan and sections of a cart-horse 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



53 



stable, constructed in an economical and substantial manner, 
and the following are the quantities and estimates for con- 
structing the same : — 







£ 


s. 


d. 


20 yards cube excavation 


at Sd. 


0 


5 


0 


3f rods of reduced brickwork 


at 8^. 10s. 


31 


17 


6 


40 in. run of brick, on edge, in cement 


at 4d. 


0 


13 


4 


40 in. run of cement filleting 


at 2d. 


0 


6 


8 


iOf square of slating 


. at 20s. 


10 


10 


0 


48 in. run of ridge to ditto 


at 6d. 


1 


4 


0 


672 in. superficial of paving to stable, &c. 


. at Is. 


33 


12 


0 


7 inch cube of stone sills to doors 


at 2s. 


0 


14 


0 


90 ft. superficial of inch-ledged doors 


at 4d. 


1 


10 


0 


4(07 ft. superficial l^-matched and beaded boarding to 








stalls .... 


. at bd. 


8 


9 


7 


19 ft. 6 in. cube wrought oak posts, &c. 


at 4s. 6d. 


4 


7 


9 


84 ft. cube fir joists, rafters, &c. 


at Is. 6d. 


6 


6 


0 


30 ft. cube wrought fir door and window frames 


at Is. 7d. 


2 


7 


6 


22 ft. 6 in. superficial louvre boarding to windows to open 








and shut .... 


at 7d. 


0 


13 


0 


11 ft. 6 in. superficial glazed sashes 


at Is. 9d. 


0 


19 


lit 


20 ft. run f -rounded fillet 


at lid. 


0 


2 


6 


10^ square of slate boarding 


at 7s. 6d. 


3 


18 


9 


60 yards superficial of painting, in 3 oils . 


at 6d. 


1 


10 


0 


No. 2 heads, at 6d., and 2 shoes, at Qd. 




0 


2 


0 


130 yards superficial twice lime white 


. at Id. 


0 


10 


10 


96 yards run 3 -in. guttering zinc 


at 3d. 


1 


4 


0 


18 yards run 2-in. rain-water pipe do. 


at Ad. 


v 


o 


u 


No. 2 heads, at Is. \0d., and 2 shoes, at Is. 




0 


4 


8 


40 brackets and nails to ditto 


. at 4d. 


0 


13 


4 


Manger complete and fixed . 1*. 6d. per foot run 


3 


12 


0 


3 10-inch stock locks, at Is. 9d., 3 stable latches, at Is., 16 








manger rings, at 4d., 8 stable grates, at lOd. 


3 


19 


9 


2 ventilators in roof, with moveable louvra boarding, painted 








and fixed complete 




4 


0 


0 




£90 


7 


H 



The above shows a cost of £11 6s. per horse. 



54 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



All the interior fittings of the stable are manufactured sepa- 
rately of iron and other materials, but they are chiefly adapted 
for hunting, carriage horses, or nags' stables ; the cost ren- 
dering them inappropriate to the lodging of cart horses. 

The paving of stables is done in a variety of ways, depending 
chiefly upon the local materials, such as faced flints, blocks of 
the harder description of chalk, or a chalk puddle primed in. 
Moore stone is used in the southern counties of England, and 
is one of the best materials I know for the purpose. Clay 
and smiths' ashes make a very good bullock-shed floor, but 
it does not last under heavy horses. Wood blocks are good, 
but absorb urine to too great an extent. Kamptulicon has 
been proved in cavalry stables to be the most perfect floor. I 
have just paved my own stable with slate cuttings set edge- 
way, with cement — it is both good and durable. Behind the 
horses, from the drains to the walls, I prefer a pavement of 
hard bricks ; the liquid-manure drains should be glazed 
earthen pipes, or what is known as Vauxhall stone ware. 

BOXES AND STALLS. 

The Bullock-fattening Shed. — Throughout Switzerland and 
Flanders the practice has long existed of keeping the cattle 
constantly in the house, where they are fed upon cut grass, 
clover, and other green food. This is a most excellent mode 
of procuring rich manure, and the plan is as profitable to 
the feeder as it is good for the stock. 

The practice of stall feeding or soiling has been gaining 
ground for many years, owing chiefly to the successful results 
of the system as proved by the late Earl Spencer, the Duke 
of Richmond, and other noblemen, who have carried out 
experiments on a great scale, to test the merits of the plan, 
and no homestead can be considered perfect that has not 
proper and scientific arrangement made for the soiling of 
stock ; the general opinion being now decidedly in favour 
of fattening all stock in covered, comfortable sheds, in pre- 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 55 

Plate XI. — Bullock-fattening Shed. 
Transverse Section. 




56 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK, 



ference to their remaining in tbe open air. Young animals, 
requiring exercise, Tvill generally grow better, and more vigor- 
ously, in the open pasture, than when confined to sheds or 
courts, but this is not the case with animals fattening, as 
warmth and rest are the most conducive to that operation, and 
these can only be obtained by stall feeding. It is now proved 
beyond a doubt, that a bullock gets fat much sooner, and 
consumes much less food in doing so, in a shed or stall, than 
in the open field. 

In their anxiety to carry out this system in the best and 
most efficient manner, many of the noblemen and gentlemen 
who have adopted it have laid out extravagantly large sums 
in the erection of their bullock sheds, or stalls, such as no 
farmer could afford to pay interest for. Indeed, I have my- 
self observed on some estates, that a larger sum has been 



Fig. 3. 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



57 




Elevation. 



ill 



m. 



' ," ,11,11 .1 1,11.1-1-^ 



V T^W I -r 



rrri ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ' 1 1 ■ 1 1 tt 



n 



III 



* This design for a loose box is copied from one by J. Ewart^ Esq,, 
the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for 1850. 

*D 3 



58 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



expended for the accommodation of a single bullock than for 
that of a whole family of labourers. 

Warm, dry, and well ventilated cattle sheds have been con- 
structed in many places at a very small cost, and it is to these 
that the practical farmer must look for example ; the follow- 
ing being the chief points to be attended to : — 

1st. That the lodging of the animals be dry, warm, and 
well ventilated, with arrangements for maintaining as nearly 
as possible an equal temperature. 

2nd. That the arrangements for supplying the animals with 
litter and food be such as will most economize the labour of 
the cattleman, and there should be equal facility for removing 
the manure from the sheds and stalls. 

3rd. That cesspools and liquid-manure drains be so ar- 
ranged that not a drop is wasted. 

4th. That all this be done at the smallest possible cost. 



Fig. 4. — Section, 




ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



59 



Plate XI. is a plan and section showing the accommodation 
for one animal, and Fig. 3 is a longitudinal section of the 
same, which may be continued to any length. 

A, is the lodging of the animal, which should be arranged 
for each bullock to have to itself 5 feet of width. This 
should be paved with some hard material, the nature of which 
will generally depend upon locality. (For description of 
material for flooring cattle-feeding sheds, see the article on 
Floors.) 

Each animal will be secured in his position by a chain 
or strap round the neck. This is fastened to a ring which 
slides freely upon the circular post C, the lower end of which 
is let into the floor, and the upper end securely fixed to- the 
joists of the floor above. Should there be no loft over, a 
strong rail must be run the whole length of the shed, and 
be occasionally secured to the wall by a transverse tie ; into 
this the heads of the stall posts must be securely tenoned. 

B, is a space railed ofl^, 4 feet wide, for the purpose of 
enclosing a single line of rails, upon which a truck runs for 
supplying the animals with food of various kinds. 

In the ground plan of the example steading, Plate VI., it 
will be observed that this line of rails runs right up to the 
coppers to receive the cooked food, as well as to the chaff- 
house and the different root stores, the turnip cutter, and 
gorse bruiser. This should always be done, and if possible a 
straight line should be preserved, as the cost and inconvenience 
of turn-tables is considerable. 

E, is the line of rails for the truck, and is here shown as 
cast upon the top of an iron pipe. These pipes are for the 
purpose of containing hot water or steam to warm the build- 
ing in exceedingly cold weather. 

I have thought it necessary to make these provisions in 
consequence of the principle being now thoroughly estabHshed, 
(a fact that farmers cannot be too often reminded of,) that 
warmth is equivalent to food, and that if they allow their fat 



60 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



stock to suffer from cold, they are throwing away a proper- | 
tionate quantity of food. 

Between the stall posts and the rail are placed the feeding 
troughs. There should he two of these to each animal — one 
to contain the food, the other the water. 

At the back of the trough, behind the railing, should be 
placed a pipe for supplying water to the trough, with a separate 
tap to each animal. 

The plan is often adopted of keeping the water in all the 
troughs at a uniform level, by means of a cistern and ball cock 
at one end. The taps are the only saving, and as it is exceed- | 
ingly inconvenient, it is a plan that cannot be recommended. 

Behind the animal, running lengthways of the building the 
whole length, is the Hquid-manure drain, G. This is 15 in. 
wide and 18 in. deep, built of brick and lined with cement, 
the top is covered with small boards, placed transversely 
across and bored with holes. 

I consider this mode of constructing the drain to be the 
best, as it can be made of any materials, be easily cleared out, 
and affords ample opportunity for the liquid to flow through 
to the drain when there is a large quantity of dung on the 
floor. 

The front of the shed next the yard is shown as constructed 
of brick to 4 feet from the ground ; above that it may be 
weather boarded. It is sometimes constructed of spars, 3 
inches wide, placed 3 inches apart, but by this plan I have 
always found the sheds very cold in the winter. Weather 
boarding is best up to within a foot of the top, where it may 
be open sparred work with a board hung on hinges, to be open 
or shut at pleasure, according to the temperature, as shown 
in Plate XI. 

This plan is designed under the supposition that the stalls 
will be cleaned every day or two. If it is intended to allow 
the dung to accumulate under the animal, and the clean litter 
to be always put on the old, there will then be required dif- 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



61 



ferent arrangements for the feeding, as the troughs must be 
made to shift up as the manure increases in thickness. There 
was an arrangement of this sort at Mr. Mechi's, ingeniously 
done, but I should decidedly not recomm.end the plan of 
allowing any great accumulation of dung in sheds of this de- 
scription, it is much better to have sunk stalls, or boxes. 

This is a very favourite plan with many persons ; it has how- 
ever one great objection, that is, the cost of constructing the 
boxes, and I have not seen any corresponding advantages. If 
two animals are put into one box and tied up, as is often done, 
they might just as well be in an ordinary shed ; as the prin- 
cipal advantage said to be derived from box feeding is to use 
it as a loose box, and allow the animal to turn about and lie 
down just which way he pleases. I have, however, seen 
animals of the largest kind fatted, without any discoverable 
inconvenience, side by side in large sheds. 



Quantities and Estimate for Eight-Stall Bullock Shed. 







£ 


s. 


d. 


10 yards cube of excavation to foundations 


at Zd. 


0 


2 


6 


If rods superficial of reduced brickwork 


at 8/. 10*. 


13 


13 


4 


64 yards superficial of paving to stalls . 


at 1*. 


3 


4 


0 


9^ square superficial of Countess slating 


at 20s. 


9 


10 


6 


42 feet run of ridge to ditto 


. at M. 


1 


1 


0 


32 yards superficial of twice lime white 


at \d. 


0 


2 


8 


38 feet cube of oak sawn die square 


. at is. 9ri. 


9 


0 


6 


31 feet cube of oak wrought all round 


at 5s. Qd. 


8 


10 


6 


40 feet superficial of inch oak . 


. at IM. 


1 


13 


4 


122 ft. 4 in. cube of fir, rafters, plates, &c. 


at Is. dd. 


9 


3 


6 


11 feet cube of fir, wrought 


at Is. 9d. 


0 


19 


3 


9^ square superficial of slate boarding 


at Is. 6<7. 


3 


11 


3 


2^ square superficial of f weather boarding 


at 16*. 


2 


0 


0 


212 ft. 6 in. superficial of l|^-inch wrought boa] 


rding at 8J. 


7 


1 


8 


80 feet superficial of inch flap hung 


at &d. 


2 


0 


0 


60 feet superficial of inch ledged door 


at 9t?. 


2 


5 


0 



Carryforward 73 19 0 



62 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



£ s. 

Brought forward 73 19 0 
No. 12 pair of hooks and bands, at \s. 6d., 2 Norfolk thumb 

latches, at 7d., 2 9-inch barrel bolts, at 9d. . .10 8 

84 feet run of 3 -inch cast-iron eaves guttering . at id, 18 0 

32 feet run of 2-inch cast-iron rain-water pipe . at bd. 0 13 4 
No. 2 heads, at Is. lOfZ., 2 shoes, at Is. . . .048 

14 yards run of railway . . . a,t4s.6d. 3 3 0 

30 yards superficial of painting in 3 oils . at 6d. 0 15 0 

^83 2 8 



The above shows the cost to be 36 10 7s. lOd. per bullock. 

Plate XII. is a plan and section of a loose box, 9 feet 
square. This is the size considered the best by authorities 
upon the point, and I think it would be a false economy to 
make them less. The floor of the box is sunk 18 inches 
below the door sill, and is well paved. As has been before 
observed, the animal stands in this box upon the manure, 
which is not removed, but fresh litter continually added, and 
doubtless the manure from being so thoroughly compressed 
is subject to Uttle loss, and will be in an excellent state when 
taken out ; but I cannot agree with some authorities, that this 
plan is the most economical method of making beef. 

That animals can be fatted more economically in well 
sheltered, comfortable, and dry buildings than in wet, cold 
yards cannot be questioned, and we may with advantage quote 
the excellent remarks of Mr. Ewart upon this subject, in his 
Essay on Farm Buildings, in the Journal of the Royal Agri- 
cultural Society for 1850. 

" The generally imperfect management of fattening stock, 
and the negligent preparation of manure so prevalent in times 
past, cannot enable the husbandman of Britain to meet, with- 
out diminution of capital, the unrestricted competition of 
foreigners in the British market in every kind of produce of 
the soil which he will henceforth have to encounter. The 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



63 



excrements of a few half-fed wintering cattle, and the litter of 
an open yard exposed to the alternate effects of rain, wind, 
and sunshine, will do little in raising such grain crops as to 
enable the British farmer to maintain, much less to promote, 
a profitable employment of his capital, and of native industry 
in the cultivation of the soil. Nor will the estate of the 
landed proprietor be supported in its present value in the 
absence of accommodation for the fattening of cattle with the 
greatest economy and convenience for preparing manure 
without waste of its fertilizing properties. 

" The essential conditions on which the fattening of cattle 
can be obtained with the greatest economy, are warmth, 
quietude, wholesomeness of atmosphere, and cleanliness. And 
of all accommodations that have probably ever been invented 
for the feeding of oxen, none has so completely answered the 
principal object of converting the vegetable productions of the 
earth into food for mankind in the shape of flesh, as the plan 
of feeding in boxes or loose stalls, first suggested by Mr. 
John Warnes, of Trimingham in Norfolk; nor does any 
plan more completely fulfil a secondary but scarcely less im- 
portant object, the raising manure of the best quality with 
the greatest economy, than the accommodation alluded to. 
There cannot exist, in the mind of any individual who may 
have witnessed the feeding of cattle in boxes properly carried 
out, a doubt of its being a most effectual mode of providing 
due shelter, perfect freedom from molestation, and complete 
comfort to the animals — all conditions most essential to rapid 
thriving ; nor can any one behold the accommodation without 
being thoroughly convinced of the great economy in collecting 
the egesta and preserving it in the very best state for its pur- 
poses, and yet without the least exhalation of effluvia. What- 
ever may be supposed, these who have not seen the box- 
feeding system in operation are hereby assured by the writer, 
who has carefully watched its effect, that it is in every respect 
consistent with perfect cleanliness, and perfect health of the 



64 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



beasts ; and he must, without hesitation, state his behef that, 
whenever any objection has been raised to the system, it has 
been induced from having seen boxes of improper construc- 
tion and fitting, or perhaps from excess of moisture produced 
from rain from above or from springs from beneath. As 
to the latter observation, respecting excess of moisture, the 
writer is certain of the fact, that a sufficient quantity of dry 
Ktter supphed three or four times a week, to keep the ani- 
mals clean from the solid excrement, is sufficient to com- 
pletely absorb the whole of the urine they void. Before 
having had an opportunity of judging correctly of the fact, 
the writer was certainly of opinion that supersaturation of the 
litter with urine would soon take place, but thorough convic- 
tion of the contrary has been induced by actual experience. 
# * # # The writer is so thoroughly convinced of the 
important advantages to be derived from feeding cattle in 
separate boxes, under cover of a roof, that he suggests that 
system as the best he ever witnessed or heard of, in the plan 
he submits to the Society in competition for their valuable 
premium for the best essay on farm buildings." 

I have quoted Mr. Ewart as an able advocate of the system 
of feeding cattle in boxes ; but, as I have before observed, 
there is considerable difference of opinion upon this subject, 
and Mr. John Caird, of Baldoon, whose opinions on practical 
points of his profession ought always to be listened to with 
attention, evidently prefers stall feeding to any other system, 
for, in his book describing a tour through the West of Ireland, 
he has the following remarks on stall feeding : — 

" A considerable comparative experience has convinced me 
that no other method will give equal accommodation for the 
same outlay ; whilst I am also persuaded that, in regard to 
economy of food and litter, facility of labour in attendance, 
health and progress of the cattle, and systematic arrange- 
ment altogether, stall feeding is superior to any other that 
has yet come under my notice. The progress of the soiling 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



65 



system, or house feeding of cattle in summer as well as win- 
ter, will lead to a more general recognition of tlie superiority 
of stall feeding, both from the necessity of economizing litter 
and the advantages of not wasting the labour of the cattle 
feeders and others in traversing unnecessary distances while 
attending to the stock." 

'cow BYRES. 

The arrangement of the stalls described as for fattening 
bullocks will answer the purpose equally well for milch cows. 
Not so the cattle boxes, though boxes are occasionally used 
for the purpose. 

The stalls for cows should not be less than 8 feet square, 
to hold two cows. 

If a travis is placed between each pair of stalls, it is better 
to construct it of wood — stone being injurious to the cows. 
The manger should be about 20 inches from the floor, al- 
though often placed on the ground ; but Mr. Stephens con- 
siders this plan "highly objectionable, inasmuch as when 
biting the turnips the head of the animal is depressed so low 
that an undue weight is thrown upon the fore-legs, and an 
injurious strain induced on the muscles of the lower jaw." 

The arrangements for feeding milch cows are pretty much 
the same as those for beasts. A plan is often adopted, in the 
North of England, of supplying the animals with their food 
through a hole in the wall, opposite their heads ; but draughts 
of cold air, entering through the opening right upon the ani- 
mal, must be highly injurious. Decidedly the best plan is to 
have a pathway between the wall and the animals' feeding 
trough. 

In some recently erected cow byres the animals are ar- 
ranged in two rows, with their heads towards each other and 
a path between them ; but there are several objections to this 
plan, especially that of the animals continually breathing 
upon each other. The paving of the cow byre should be 



66 ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 

•with pitched stones for about half the length of the stall, and 
the other half should be of rammei earth ; as cows, in lying 
down or rising up, first kneel on their fore-knees, which 
would be injurious if the floor were not made smooth as well 
as covered with litter. 

The method of fastening the cows is the same as for 
bullocks, viz., a chain with a ring sliding up and down the 
head post, or a chain and ring, and a strap round the ani- 
mal's neck. The Scotch plan is generally by what is called 
a Bakie, shown in figure 5. This is composed of a piece of 
Fig. 5. hard wood, c, with two pieces of cordfastened 
at the top and lower end ; the bottom cord 
has an eye spliced in the end and round the 
post a, up and down which it moves freely. 
The upper cord has an eye and knot, h, 
where the animal is tied up ; the lower 
end is passed under the neck, and the upper 
one over ; it is then secured to the post. This 
_s a good method of tying up, but not so 
good as the chain, as the animals are prevented turning their 
heads to lick their bodies, which they can do by the former 
plan. 

Another plan of fastening cows, is by a spar of wood shift- 
ing in a slot at the top. The animal's head being thrust 
in when it is open, it is then drawn up to the animal's neck, 
and fastened. This plan is never to be recommended but 
for some temporary purpose. 

CALF PENS. 

Calves are either suckled by the mother or artificially 
brought up by hand, by feeding them with milk, hnseed 
tea, &c. 

When suckled by the mothers, and there is room enough in 
the cow byres, they are best arranged in a row behind the 
cows ; and, if not, they are placed in separate loose boxes at 




ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



67 



the end of the byres, and let loose at proper intervals to be 
suckled. Some persons object to the placing the calf cribs in 
the same byre with their mothers, on account of the elder 
animals being disturbed by the bleating of the young ; but 
there is no foundation for this prejudice, as in practice it is 
not the case. 

When brought up by hand they are placed in a separate 
apartment, and sometimes each calf is placed in a separate 
crib ; a plan which has the advantage of preventing them 
sucking one another, from which bad practice diseases are 
often engendered. A single calf crib should not be less than 
4 feet square and 4 feet high, formed by a frame of light 
spars, and provided with a wicket for access to the pen. The 
floor should be paved with some hard material such as asphalte, 
and every provision should be made for keeping the place 
clean and sweet. 

A most disagreeable smell is always found to exist in the 
apartments occupied by calves, and no arrangement is ever 
used to get rid of it ; some low shed, without Hght or ventila- 
tion, being generally appropriated for this purpose. 

The most ample ventilation should always be secured, by 
the apartment being of a sufficient height, and provided in 
the ceiling and roof with an aperture covered with perforated 
zinc. The walls should be periodically lime-washed, and the 
apartment be kept thoroughly clean. 

In Marshall's Survey of Gloucestershire, he describes the 
plan adopted for feeding calves ; and as it is much used at 
this time, and is, I believe, the original of the system of feed- 
ing cattle on sparred floors, as adopted by Mr. Huxtable and 
Mr. Mechi, I have given it below. Mr. Huxtable, however, 
has the credit of being the inventor, although the plan has 
been used in Gloucestershire from time immemorial. 

The calf pens in Gloucestershire, Marshall observes, are of 
admirable construction, extremely simple, yet singularly well 
adapted to the object. Young calves, fattening calves more 



68 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



especially, require to be kept narrowly confined ; quietness 
is, in a degree, essential to their thriving. A loose pen, or a i 
long halter, gives freedom to their natural fears, and a loose i 
to their playfulness. Cleanliness and a due degree of warmth : 
are likewise requisite in the right management of calves. A: 
pen which holds seven, or occasionally eight calves, is of the 
following description : The house or roomstead, in which it 
is placed, measures 1 2 feet by 8 ; 4 feet of its width are 
occupied by the stage, and one foot by a trough placed on its • 
front, leaving 3 feet as a gangway, into the middle of 
which the door opens. The floor of the stage is formed of 
laths about 2 inches square, lying the longway of the stage, ' 
and 1 inch asunder. The front fence is of staves, an inch 
and a half in diameter, 9 inches from middle to middle, , 
and 3 feet high, entered at the bottom into the front bearer 
of the floor (from which cross joists pass into the back 
wall), and steadied at the top by a rail ; which, as well as the 
bottom piece, is entered at each end into the end wall. The 
holes in the upper rail are wide enough to permit the staves 
to be lifted up, and taken out to give admission to the calves ; 
one of which is fastened to every second stave by means of 
two rings of iron joined by a swivel, one ring playing upon 
the stave, the other receiving a broad leathern collar buckled 
round the neck of the calf. The trough is for barley meal, 
chalk, &c., and to rest the pails on. Two calves drink out 
oi one pail, putting their heads through between the staves. 
The height of the floor of the stage from the floor of the room 
is about one foot. It is thought to be wrong to hang it 
higher, lest by the wind drawing under it the calves should 
be too cold in severe weather : this, however, might be easily 
prevented by litter or long strawy dung thrust beneath it. It 
is observable, that these stages are fit only for calves which 
are fed with the pail, not for calves which suck the cow. 

This plan approaches very nearly to the sparred floors of 
Mr. Huxtable. The main pit being made deeper is decidedly 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



69 



an advantage. Unless it be raked out every day, the pit will 
require to be sprinkled with some fixer, as often as convenient, 
to keep the place sweet and preserve the quality of the manure. 
For the details of the construction of these floors, see the 
chapter on Sparred Floors. 

THE PIGGERY» 

There is no animal on which the farmer is more inclined 
to bestow care and attention than on his hogs. They have 
always been a favourite stock ; their general inclination to 
fatten, short life, and consequently quick return for the outlay, 
very justly rendering them so. 

As to the best arrangement for the lodging and feeding of 
hogs, almost every man has some particular notion ; some- 
times they are to be found lodged in the most costly build- 
ings imaginable, and at others scarcely protected from the 
weather. 

That hogs, as well as other animals, require good and suffi- 
cient accommodation, there can be no doubt ; it is of the first 
importance that they be kept warm and dry : modern science 
has proved that a less amount of food will suffice to produce 
the same results, when so cared for. 

They should also be kept exceedingly clean— for the hog 
is not naturally of dirty habits — and if provided with plenty 
of clean straw, and a separate lodging, will always be found 
in a clean state, and amply repay any extra care or attention 
bestowed upon him. 

The sties should not be too large, and should be open, if 
possible, to the south ; they should be divided into two parts 
— an open yard, and the lodging. 

The yard should be conveniently placed for the removal of 
the large amount of dung made by these animals ; it should 
be surrounded by a strong flush oak fence, or brick wall, and 
be securely paved ; as these animals will root up and entirely 
destroy the premises in a very short time, if precaution be 



70 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



not taken to prevent them. They should also be prevented 
from seeing into the adjoining yards or lodgings. 

The lodgings should be raised above the outer yards, and 
be well protected from the weather, (rain beating in upon hogs 
is the worst thing that can happen to them,) they should be 
well ventilated and drained, and the floor should have a good 
slope towards the yard. 

The feeding arrangements are usually placed at the end of 
the yard, and are loose wood, or iron, open troughs. For small 
piggeries circular iron troughs, divided into compartments, 
is a excellent plan. The ordinary triangular troughs in com- 
mon use are the worst ; about one-third of the food being 
wasted by the hogs splashing it over in their greedy anxiety 
to get more than their proper share, and sometimes a pig 
may be seen lying lengthways in the trough, thinking by that 
means to secure himself a larger share. Such a system of 
feeding would not be tolerated in any well managed farm, 
though I am sorry to say it is an ordinary plan. Some con- 
trivance should always exist to separate the hogs and pro- 
vide for each having its proper allowance, and for the feeder 
to be able to properly fill the trough before the pigs get 
at it, which it is difficult to do by the old plan. 

An excellent iron trough is made by Crosskill, of Beverley, 
Tor's patent, for this purpose. The plan is not new, as an 
extensive and costly piggery, erected at Bagshot Park Farm, 
by his late Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester, is fitted 
with a similar apparatus, but of wood. It is much better 
to be constructed of iron, if possible, and it should be fitted 
into the fence, and form part of it. 

Fiff. 6 is the section of a sty, showing the arrangement 
for feeding. 

A, is the passage for the feeder, which will be equally 
necessary whether the truck and rail be used or not. B, is 
the lodging for the hogs. This, as well as the outer yard, 
should be paved in a secure manner, perfectly smooth, and 



accom:viodation for stock. 71 



Fig. 6. 

Transverse Section of Figgery. 




■without cracks or fissures of any kind, and sloping easilj 
towards the yard. 

The floor of the lodging should be worked up to a siil be- 
tween it and the yard, which should be about four inches 
lower. Each lodging should slope slightly towards the centre, 
as well as towards the yard ; so as to ensure the most perfect 
drainage. C, is the post-and-rail fence that separates the 
hogs from the gangway. The space between the posts is 
filled up with the hog feeding-trough. This may be con- 
structed of iron or wood, and consists of a cu'cular bottom 
trough, running the width of the sty, divided by plates 
across, which prevent the animals pushing one another 
away, and allows the food to run through the hole at the 
bottom of it, from end to end, when being filled. Above the 

^ centre of the trough is suspended, and swinging, a flap 2 ft. 

I 6 in. deep, which, when the troughs are being filled, is 
pushed forward towards the hogs and secured there. After 
the food has been placed in readiness, the flap is with- 
drawn towards the feeder, and secured to that side of the 
trough. It then forms an excellent back, and prevents the 



72 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



least waste from the food being splashed over. In some 
cases, I have seen this flap fitted to rise in a slot, so that it 
may be removed from one side to another when the trough is 
quite full, which, with the ordinary method, cannot be done. 

Sometimes these flaps are made of laths ; but it is not 
nearly so good as to have them flush. 

SHEEP SHEDS. 

The great success that has attended the system of fat- 
tening oxen in stalls, or covered sheds, has led many per- 
sons to try experiments as to the effect of the same system, 
as applied to the fattening of sheep, and generally with 
successful results ; for warm and dry lodging is as necessary 
to sheep as to other animals. 

The gentleman who has carried out this plan on the largest 
scale, and whose efforts to introduce the system are most 
looked up to, is Sir Richard Simeon, Bart., on his farm in the 
Isle of Wight. The plan adopted there is to tie up the 
sheep separately, exactly the same as bullocks ; each sheep 
having a separate stall, and being fastened with a chain like 
an ox. The sheep are fed upon oil-cake, cut turnips, meal, 
&c., from a feeding box, and water is supplied to them from 
a trough. Behind the animals is placed a manure tank, into 
which the manure is swept several times during the day. 
The tank is covered with a grated cover. 

The shed is kept at an even temperature, and experience 
has shown that a much higher temperature than one would 
expect is the best for fattening. The thermometer, therefore, 
should be kept exactly at this point. 

The plan of shed-feeding is now fast gaining ground, and 
arrangements of some kind for it are now made in all new 
homesteads. 

Different persons advocate different plans. Mr. ^lechi, 
Mr. Huxtable, and others, have the sheep-shed floors covered 
with a grating, through which the manure falls, and is occa- 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



73 



sionally removed. For a description of these floors, see chap- 
ter on Sparred Floors. 

On some farms the sheep are fed in sheds, the floors of 
which are excavated below the level of the ground, the same 
as for box-feeding large animals ; the litter is spread over the 
dung, which is first sprinkled over with dry ashes, gypsum, 
burnt claj, or some other fixer. This plan is in no way so 
good for the sheep as the other, which may be called the dry 
plan, nor is it much in use. 

The ordinary mode is now to have large, comfortable 
sheds, with hard paved floors, in which the sheep are sup- 
plied with food in much the same way as in other places, 
but with this difference, that the animals have full liberty to 
move about. 

It may easily be imagined that the dung from animals fed 
in this way, that is, under covered sheds, is found to be 
of the utmost value as manure, and that it has greatly the 
advantage over the field plan, where half the value of the 
manure is lost from evaporation of the ammonia in warm 
weather, and the washing it is subjected to in wet. The im- 
portant argument formerly brought against this plan on light 
lands, viz., that the consolidation of the soils by the tread of 
the sheep was lost, now no longer holds good, for nearly the 
same effect of the tread of the sheep is produced by the use of 
Crosskiirs toothed roller. 

A good arrangement has been made by tying the sheep up 
in pairs ; and, in consequence of the sociable nature of the 
animal, benefits are said to be derived from it. Economy in 
construction also takes place, as only one water and feeding 
trough is required instead of two, and a larger number of 
sheep may be accommodated in the same sized shed. 

On wet farms there is no doubt that the sparred floor 
sheep-sheds are most excellent, and of the greatest possible 
advantage, as the sheep may feed on the land in the day 



74 



ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK. 



without injury, if certain of having a thoroughly dry hed at 
night : their occasionally heing wet is of no consequence, the 
mischief is in their being continually so. 

Bull House. — A separate box must be provided for bulls, 
which may be constructed in the same manner as for fattening 
oxen, except that it should not be less than 12 feet by 9. 

Cattle Hammels. — In many parts of the north of England, 
and generally in Scotland, the plan is to feed cattle in ham- 
mels. These are small apartments with little yards attached, 
in which one or more animals are placed, and usually suffered 
to range in and out of the yard as they please. There needs 
no particular description of these buildings, as they hare no 
particular fittings up or arrangements, more than an ordinary 
small shed and yard. Their chief use is in affording accom- 
modation for growing stock ; and on farms where much is 
bred it is necessary to have them. Young growing animals 
will not thrive so well if subjected to much confinem^ent. 

Fig. 7. — Plan of Hammels. 











"""jer.v.:: 


m r 


il IT 


Tl Jl 




II r 



Cattle Infirmary.— This is a new feature in farm home- 
steads ; but, nevertheless, I think no good steading will long 
be without it. The dreadful ravages that have taken place 
lately (especially since the introduction of so much foreign 
stock) render this building now positively neccessary, with a 
view to prevent the spread of dreadful disorders. By pleuro- 



STRAW YARDS. 



75 



pneumonia alone a large amount of stock has been destroyed, 
and in this, as in many other diseases, it is of the utmost im- 
portance to have the animal supposed to be affected imme- 
diately removed to a separate lodging and yard, inaccessible 
to any portion of the other stock upon the farm. Different 
animals require different and peculiar treatment, while suffer- 
ing from certain diseases, and this can only be effectually 
carried out by having separate and fit accommodation for them. 
The cattle infirmary should be placed at some portion of the 
steading, not in the road of the ordinary stock, and having a 
separate way to it, and be so situated that the manure from 
the animals in it may be removed direct to the dung heap or 
house, that the feet of other animals may not come in contact 
with it. 

The buildings should consist of a loose box for horses, a 
stall for oxen or cows, a sty and yard, and a small lodging 
and yard for sheep, surrounded by a high close fence. The 
floors should be laid with Kamptulicon, or asphalte, as being 
the least absorbent materials in use. The walls and ceilings 
should be plastered, and floated as smooth as possible. The 
troughs, racks, and mangers should be of iron ; and wherever 
there is any woodwork that may come in contact with the sick 
animal, it should be planed smooth. The whole place should 
be lime-whited every time cattle are placed in it. Some ar- 
rangement should be m.ade for producing extra warmth, if 
necessary, and the whole should be most perfectly venti- 
lated. 

STRAW YARDS. 

In the plans of old steadings the buildings are generally 
arranged round an enclosed area, called the straw yard, and 
this yard will be found to exist at the present day, with all 
its abominations, on nine farms out of ten in England, espe- 
cially in the south. 

It is in this yard that the generality of farmers consider that 

*E 2 



76 



STRAW YARDS. 



the manure is to be made for producicg the crops, from the 
sale of which they are to meet the expenses of the farm, them- 
selves to live, and get, if they can, something towards in- 
creasing their capital. One would think, as so much is to be 
got from this part of the premises, considerable pains would be 
bestowed in having it constructed and arranged in the best 
possible manner for the purpose required ; but it is not so — 
the straw yard of most English farms is a partially enclosed 
place not paved, nor even the bottom formed to any regular 
shape, unfurnished with any means of draining the liquid 
manure towards a tank, or protected from the rush of water 
descending into it from thousands of feet of roofing that sur- 
round it, after heavy rain or the melting of snow. Into 
this yard, or rather pool of stagnant water, tons of valuable 
fodder in the shape of straw are thrown to form a bed for the 
stock who are unfortunately doomed for a time to wallow in 
its filth. The whole of the rain water being allowed to drain 
into the yard would of course soon flood it, in spite of the con- 
tinually renewed layers of straw that are added, fresh and clean 
and dry, to be water-rotted, saturated, and wasted. 

To prevent this accumulation of water at the lowest point, 
it is usual to have a horse pond, into which the water, after 
thoroughly washing the manure and extracting from it its 
most valuable elements, eventually finds its way ; and the 
drinking pond, instead of being wholesome and clean, is a rude 
tank of diluted liquid manure. When this exceeds a fixed 
height, as it will do of course after every shower, a noisy little 
torrent makes its way to the adjoining brook, carrying past the 
farmer's door the very profit that he is working so anxiously 
to obtain. This wretched straw yard is about the worst part 
of these miserable steadings, and the farmers are not always 
to be blamed for it. I have frequently pointed it out to them, 
and invariably the reply has been " What can I do ? the whole 
of my buildings must have gutters to carry off the rain water, 
before these gutters are fixed the broken eaves of the buildings 



STRAW YARDS. 



77 



must all be repaired. I must also have spouts and drains to 
carry off the water clear of the yard. Until this is done, how 
can I have hquid-manure tanks ? I should be glad of one ; but 
you would not advise me to lay out my own money on such 
improvements without a lease, and my landlord will not do it 
for me." This is all perfectly true, and the sooner the ques- 
tion is settled between landlord and tenant the better. Tenant 
farmers are taunted by free-trade journalists and others, because 
they do not save their liquid manure ; but until other arrange- 
ments and improvements are made, that ought to be done by 
the landlord, the tenant has no power to save that which he 
well knows is running to waste. But I fear we are running 
away to the question between landlord and tenant, and from 
the subject in hand, — viz., straw yards. 

In the modern steadings a large straw yard is thought un- 
necessary, small enclosed yards for different descriptions o-f 
stock being preferred. These yards should be all properly 
paved with some hard material, and sloped gradually towards 
the centre — here there should be an iron grating, and beneath 
it a cesspool and pipes to convey the liquid manure to the 
tank. "When these yards are bounded by stables, byres, &c., 
a raised foot-path should run round them, protected from the 
muck by a curb, so that proper roadways may everywhere 
exist to give facility of communication between different build- 
ings, which is a matter of the first importance. 

Straw or fold yards should always be, if possible, enclosed 
on the north, east, and west sides, and open towards the 
south ; there should be no open places between buildings 
through which draughts might enter, and all wooden fences 
and gates should be made with flush-boards. 

An open shed should be built in the centre of the yard, if 
none exist at the sides, that the stock may have shelter from 
the rain if they choose to avail themselves of it, which they 
will generally be found ready enough to do. 



78 



POULTRY HOUSE. 



POULTRY HOUSE. 

When only a few fowls are kept that have the run of the 
straw yards, &c., no particular accommodation is required 
beyond a small apartment, furnished with a few boxes for 
the hens to lay in. 

But sometimes it is made part of the regular business, and 
a large stock of poultry of various kinds bred and fatted for 
market. In this case a proper building should be constructed, 
of ample dimensions, perfectly water tight, and inaccessible to 
foxes, cats, and other vermin. The place must be paved with 
stone, asphalte, or brick in cement, laid perfectly smooth. 
There must also be efficient drains to keep the whole dry. 

The aspect of the poultry house should be either to the 
east or south-east, so as to receive the first of the sun's rays 
in the winter. In order to carry out the breeding and fat- 
tening of a large quantity of different kinds of poultry in a 
proper manner, it is necessary that each species should have 
a separate apartment to be entered by its own door. A yard 
should be provided into which the fowls may disperse them- 
selves during the day. There should also be provided a pro- 
per pond for aquatic birds. The roosts for hens, turkeys, 
&c., may be placed over the lodgings for aquatic birds. 
Arrangements should be specially made for excluding the ex- 
cessive heat of summer, and the intense cold of winter. 

If the situation is at all exposed, it is better to have a flue, 
or some other arrangement, for warming the place. A small 
sliding trap should be placed in the bottom of each door, to 
allow of the ingress and egress of the birds when the doors 
are closed. 

It is usual to place the battens at angles across the fowl 
houses for the fowls to roost upon; but the most efficient 
plan is to have a series of rough angular spars, rising one 
above another, from the floor to the roof, as in Fig. 8. 



POULTRY HOUSE. 79 



Fig. 8. — Section of Fowl House, 



The nests are generally small niches or divisions placed 
against the wall in rows one above another. In front of each 
tier of nests, and level with the bottom of the nest, must be 
a small projecting stage about a foot in width. A step 
ladder must be provided for the birds to reach it. The 
slope of the roosting stage is usually placed at an angle of 
about forty-five degrees. 

Pigeon Houses. — The keeping of pigeons is not at all con- 
sistent with good farming, unless it be in grazing districts, 
where there is no chance of damage being done to corn. 

Pigeon houses are generally used as ornamental appendages 
to the stable yards or out-buildings attached to the residences 
of private gentlemen, and usually consist of a box divided 
into compartments about 18 inches deep, and a foot wide and 
high. The compartments are arranged in pairs, one being 
open at the front and the other closed. These boxes are 
generally placed on poles, which are fixed in the centre of the 
yards ; or where a great number are kept, a regular building is 
erected, either standing alone or raised above the roof of 
some barn or stable. 

It was the custom formerly to keep pigeons to a much 
larger extent than is now done ; and the quaint little build- 
ings we often see with high-pitched roofs standing alone, or 



80 



THE APIARYv 



at a short distance from the farmery, were erected for this 
purpose. 

The circular conical-roofed dovecot of the old French Seig- 
neurie is always a prominent feature in the landscape of that 
country. 

Rabhitery. — Rabbits in any quantity are seldom to be met 
with as a part of the live stock of the agriculturist*. 

When so kept, their accommodation consists of a series of 
yards and sheds much the same as a piggery ; but not so large. 

The Apiary. — The ordinary plan of keeping bees is by 
placing the hives in the open air upon a stool. One leg 
is considered better than more, as giving greater protection 
from insects or vermin. The leg of the stool is driven 
into the ground, and upon the top of it, secured by a spike 
nail, is a piece of slab upon which the hive is placed. This 
is usually made of straw twisted and plaited ; but of late 
years a great deal has been written about the management of 
bees, and a number of scientific hives invented. Some of 
these have glass v/indows for inspecting the operations of the 
insect, and others are divided into series of cells and ar- 
ranged in stories ; but the old straw hive is still a favourite 
with those who pay most attention to the subject. 

The situation of the hive stool should always be in some 
sheltered corner, having fences or walls on two sides (to pro- 

* Although the manure from these animals is of great value, and 
some farmers have found it worth while to keep tbem for this purpose. 
I see for instance, by Mr. Mechi's model of his farm, that he is keeping 
a quantity, and I have no doubt but he will make known the results of 
his experience, and his method of rearing and fattening them. 

Rabbits fatted for market are placed in hutches j that is, small boxes 
divided into two compartments, one of which is faced with spars of wood 
about an inch apart, and the other is closed to the front and has an 
opening from the other compartment. 



RICK YARD. 



81 



tect the swarm from winds, &c.), and being open to the south 
and west. 

, When there are a number of stools, they should be ar- 
ranged in rows about three feet apart, those in the second 
row alternating with those in the first. 
I To protect them from being stolen, where the situation is 
! accessible to strangers, the hive is secured to the stool by a 
chain and padlock. 

When a large number of bees are kept in the neighbour- 
hood of a mansion, or associated with buildings of an orna- 
mental character, an apiary is often built. 

This is a building for containing the hives, which are placed 
upon shelves one above another. 

These little buildings are made in a variety of forms, ac- 
cording to the fancy of the proprietor. Bees, however, are 
generally considered to thrive best in the open air, as before 
described. 



CHAPTER III. 

RICK YARD, 

The rick yard, as the name implies, is the place in which 
the various crops, grain and hay, are placed after they have 
been harvested. 

The rick yard should be a level piece of ground, and tho- 
roughly dry ; the stacks should be placed on frames of wood 
or iron, called staddles. These must be arranged in such a 
manner that any one particular stack may be got at when it 
is necessary, according to the judgment of the farmer, as to 
whether its condition requires that it be immediately used, as 
in the case of its heating, or whether he requires it for con- 
sumption on the farm, or a good price may be got for it at 
the market. 

*E 3 



82 



RICK YARD. 



The best plan of arranging stacks in tlie rick yard, is as 
shown in Fig. 9. 

Fig. 9,— Plan of Rick Yard. 







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It will be seen by this plan, that any stack in the yard may 
be got at ; and if a railway be laid down from the entrance to 
the threshmg bam, the truck may be placed alongside any rick. 

It is acknowledged by all, that railways should be laid down 
in farmeries, to facilitate the business of the farm, whereyer 
judicious. Now, the great weight of the straw, which has to 
be removed to the threshing barn, renders the plan, in this 
case, highly advantageous. The plan of the stacks shown in 
the cut might be objected to, on account of its requiring a 
turn-table at every cross, which . would occasion considerable 
expense ; but I have been able to obviate this difficulty by 
constructing a particular sort of truck, especially adapted for 
this purpose. (For a dra\^ing and description of this, see 



BARNS. 



83 



Vol. II.) It is a truck so constructed as to be able to run 
from one line to another at right angles to it, without the aid 
of turn-tables. 

Mr. Moretou, to get over this difficulty, and avoid turn- 
tables, has the line of rails leading to the threshing barn 
sunk below the surface of the ground, and on this a truck 
runs, the top of which is level with the cross lines. The 
truck on the cross lines, being loaded, is run on to the truck 
in the sunk line, and the two trucks, and their load, one on 
the top of the other, are run up to the threshing barn. This 
plan, though extremely ingenious, is for several reasons very 
inconvenient, and it is to obviate this inconvenience that I 
have designed the machine before alluded to. 

THE BARNS. 

The largest and most important of the various buildings 
forming the steading, is the threshing and store barn. In old 
steadings this building, from its great size and picturesque 
shape, is always an imposing feature ; its high pitched-roof 
of thatch or tiles, covered with moss, and its quaint gables 
as seen above the trees, render it one of the most striking 
features in English landscape, and one which has always 
been a favourite with painters. 

Some of these old barns, designed by early English archi- 
tects, are most skilfally constructed, and often have consider- 
able architectural pretensions. Such as the barn at Thornhill 
Old Hall, Yorkshire, which is a very fine specimen ; and 
another very fine barn of brick at Old Basing, Hants, for- 
merly attached to the fine mansion of Old Basing House, 
destroyed by Cromwell. There are many similar ones to be 
met with in almost every county in England. 

These barns are generally divided transversely into three 
principal divisions, the centre one being the threshing floor, 
and the two side ones for the mows of unthreshed grain. 
The roof of the building is generally carried a considerable 
distance, eaves fashion, below the side-wall plates. 



84 



BARNS. 



Small lodgings for stock are formed under them ; and one 
or two small apartments in the interior, for storing the clean 
straw, &c. 

One of the best plans of a barn of this description is shown 
in the annexed woodcut, and was designed for General Wash- 
ington, by Arthur Young, Esq. : — 

Fig. 10. 




— « — •— — -• — 1 

^ ^ 1 




21 




■ l7 16 








8 3 








12 13 


16 


15 













B — 



1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The barn. 

1, 2, 7, 8. The porch of ditto, 

with a small door at 9. 
10^ 11. The great door at which 

the carts enter. 

12, The threshing floor, which 
extends the space of 1, 2, 10, 11. 

13, 13. Bays in which the corn 
is stowed. 

14, 14, 14, 14. Sheds for cattle 
and horses. 

15, 15, 15, 15. Mangers out of 
which the cattle get their roots, 
straw, and chaff. 

16,16,16,16. Passages, between 
two and three feet wide, for car- 
rying food to the cattle. 

17, 17, 17, 17. Doors in the pas- 
sage. 

18, 18, 18, 18. Principal posts on 
which the shed rests. 



19, 19, 19, 19. Gutters of brick 
sloped, for conveying the urine 
of the cattle to 

20, 20, 20, 20. Cisterns, from 
which it is every day regularly 
thrown on the dunghill. 

21, 21, 21, 21, are sheds for vari- 
ous purposes. 

22, 22. Two yards, with each a 
shed for shelter, to be applied 
to any purpose wanted : one for 
sheep, surrounded with low 
racks; another divided for a 
horse or two loose, or the other 
half for yearling calves. 

23, 23. Enclosure of pales. 
1,2,3,4,5,6,7. The main body 

of the barn, which rises from 
14 to 20 feet to the eaves: all 
the rest of the shed being placed 
against it. 



BARNS. 



85 



This specimen represents the general style of ancient barns, 
as all of them partake more or less of its character. The 
ancient method of housing the whole produce of the farm in 
barns, and the old mode of threshing with the flail, rendered 
this description of barn necessary to every steading ; but the 
introduction of the threshing machine, and other arrangements 
for economizing and accelerating the barn operations, render 
this large costly sort of barn now generally unnecessary. 

Nevertheless, there are still some situations in which small 
barns of this description may be judiciously erected, and some 
crops, that in the present state of the threshing machine it is 
better to thresh with the flail — such as barley for malting, and 
to procure straw for thatching ; it is therefore better to make 
arrangements to have a threshing floor properly situate, in the 
event of its being wanted. 

The introduction of the thrashing machine so totally alters 
the working arrangements of the barn, that entirely new and 
difl'erent sorts of barns should be erected in all new stead- 
ings ; and the great importance of threshing well, with 
economy and despatch, renders this building of the utmost 
consequence. 

The most judicious situation having been chosen for the 
erection of the threshing barn, the next point is the applica- 
tion of motive power. Should this be water, this building 
will be dependant for details and arrangements entirely on 
locality ; if steam, or horse-power, a fixed principle may be 
laid down, and in fixing this principle, it will be necessary to 
consider what are the operations to be performed, and the 
requirements for performing those operations in the best and 
most economical manner. 

In the old manner of housing crops, it was the custom (as 
has been before observed), to place the whole, or nearly the 
whole, in large barns. The present plan, on account of much 
larger quantities of grain being got from the land, and the 
introduction of the threshing machine, has been to store the 



86 



BARNS. 



grain crops in stacks or ricks, sometimes in the fields where 
the crop is grown, or a conyenient place near, or else to place 
all the stacks in a piece of ground called a rick yard, in a con- 
Tenient situation with reference to the threshing harn, and it 
is with this plan we have chiefly now to deal. 

The first requisite of a well- arranged threshing harn should 
be, that the unthreshed straw be easily conveyed direct to the 
head of the threshing machine, and that facilities be afforded 
for removing the straw back (after it has passed through the 
machine) to the rick yard. 

In a number of example steadings, there has been a great 
error committed in not placing the machine in such a situation 
that the straw may be easily and conveniently stowed away 
after lea\'ing the machine. In Mr. Mechi's costly steading, at 
Tiptree Hall, the store barn is of enormous size ; but, after 
the powerful threshing machine has done its work, there is no 
corresponding place for housing or removing the straw. 

I should not, myself, in constructing a steading, erect any 
building for storing unthreshed straw, or housing any quantity 
of threshed straw ; but farmers, I know, like bai-n room, and 
w^ould be a long time before they gave up their prejudice in 
favour of it. 

In a large steading I constructed in Ham.pshire, I had no 
place to house the crops. The waggons delivered it at once 
to the machine, and the straw was again removed to the rick 
yard. I found no inconvenience from this plan, and I would 
sooner be without large barns, than have to pay interest of 
money for them. 

It is of great importance that facility be given for supply- 
ing all courts, yards, and lofts with the straw necessary for 
litter. 

The centre portion of the building, w^hich contains the 
threshing machinery, it is necessary should be constructed in 
a very superior manner; and it being admitted that fixed 
machinery is the best and most economical for all purposes, I 



BARNS. 



87 



should advise tLat all macliinery that possibly can be placed 
in this building, and that it be constructed and fitted up with 
superior materials and workmanship, and should also contain 
the granary and stores for everything of value, and be ren- 
dered perfectly inaccessible to vermin and thieves. For this 
purpose it should be divided into three floors, as in Plate 8. 

A, being the pit, or lower floor, upon which are placed the 
winnowing machines and cleaning machinery. B, the stage 
floor, strongly secured and supported, upon which are placed 
the threshing and other machines. C, is the granary and 
store room. D,B, is the line of the roadway through the barn, 
upon which the waggons pass to deliver straw to the machine, 
the grain falling through to the winnowing and cleaning 
machines ; it is then hoisted by a sack tackle to the granary 
above, in which are placed a series of hoppers for delivering 
the various materials to the machines below — such as oil-cake 
to be crushed ; beans, oats, &c., to be bruised ; corn to be 
ground ; and wheat, when necessary, to be cleaned by passing 
through the smut machine. These various articles, after 
passing through each machine, are delivered into bins, or 
troughs, on the first floor, A. 

Having constructed a threshing barn, granary, &c., very 
nearly the same as described above, upon this plan, I am able 
to speak from experience as to its successfully answering the 
purpose intended. The annexed plate represents the section 
through the buildings. They were constructed for and under 
the direction of Joseph Gibbs, Esq., an eminent civil engineer. 
The materials, workmanship, and fittings-up of the machinery 
were all of first-rate character. 

A, is the corn mill, consisting of the pit floor ; B, the hurst, 
driving gear, and meal bins ; C, is the stone floor, with three 
pairs of stones and pastry at back ; D, is the dressing floor, 
with dressing, bolting, and smut machines ; E, is the top floor, 
containing the sack tackle, hopper, and shoots to the floor 
below ; from this floor there is a covered gangway to connect 



GRANARY. 



89 



I the top floor of the threshing barn, C;, with it, the whole top 
I floor forming on one level -a convenient and extensive granary 
and store ; from this floor there is a communication to the 
; loft, over the stables, H, in which is placed the chaff-cutting 
' machinery. The threshing machine is placed on a stage floor, 
|! I, in the threshing barn, and beneath it the winnowing ma- 
chine, the floor being sunk for that purpose. 

The straw is delivered at the side of the machine from the 
waggon, a roadway being constructed through the barn. At- 
tached to the gear in the mill a sack tackle is fixed in the 
i granary for the purpose of hoisting from the waggon below. 
In the rear of the threshing barn, and at right angles with it, 
is the straw barn ; between the threshing barn and the corn 
mill is a circular saw bench. 

The whole is driven by an overshot water wheel, K. L, is 
i the dwelling house of the miller. 

The ground plan of these buildings was not quite what one 
would have wished ; the formation of the mill tail in a deep 
cutting and other local circumstances prevented its being 
otherwise. In making a new design for a threshing barn, &c., 
therefore I have adopted as much only of this as was found 
to answer well, and made my other arrangements as I could have ' 
wished, had I a clear piece of ground to build upon, and no 
old buildings to adapt. In the design for a large steading, 
Plate VI., I have still kept the same arrangements for the 
threshing barn and granary, the difference being in those of 
the straw barn. 

THE GRANARY. 

The most common form of granary to be met with in old 
farmeries is a small detached building, sometimes of brick 
or stone, but generally of wood ; placed upon staddles, and 
standing isolated, in or near the farm yard. The reason for 
placing it thus, was to render its access as difficult as pos- 
sible to vermin. Fig. 1 1 represents a section of one of these 
descriptions of granaries on rather a larger scale than usual. 



90 CHAFF HOUSE. 

Fig. 11. — Section of Granary. 



II II II 11 II II 1 




..:_.jiji.i_nin±. 


n n □ 


'2 








N 


1 — 1 





ERE mj 

and one of the best of its kind. It was designed and con- 
structed by Mr. Robert Burgess, at Brook Farm, Hants. 

It contains two floors, with bins for grain, and a rariety of 
other conveniences ; it is also fitted with a sack tackle, scales 
and weights, and has a small hand corn-grinding mill and 
dressing machine. 

The introduction of the threshing machine having consider- 
ably altered the shape and construction of the threshing bam, 
now renders this form of granary but ill adapted for the pur- 
pose, and I have therefore placed it over the threshing ma- 
chine, and it becomes in all respects a place similar to the top 
floor of corn mills. 

THE CHAFF HOUSE. 

The advantages derived from feeding animals with cut 
fodder may now be considered as settled, and the chaff" house 
to be a necessary adjunct to every steading. 

This apartment should be so placed that the greatest facility 
be given for supplying the machine with the hay, straw, &c., 
to be cut, and should therefore be in such a position as to be 



ROOT STORES. 



91 



in direct communication with the hay and straw barn. It is 
also necessary that it be so placed that equal facilities be given 
for the supply of the chaff to all the animals on the farm con- 
suming it. 

As the chaff-cutting machine requires considerable power to 
drive it, and is in daily use, of course the motive power used 
for the threshing and other machinery is also required for this. 
This point must of course be properly considered in fixing the 
site of this apartment. A common plan in modern steadings, 
has been to place the chaff-cutting machine upon the stage 
floor of the threshing barn, and in consequence of this, the 
operation of cutting and preparing the chaff I have observed 
to be always done in an unsatisfactory manner. This has been 
done to avoid carrying the power (which is usually placed close 
to the threshing machine) to a more distant point ; but as a 
light lay shaft, or riggers and straps, may be set up at a small 
cost, and very little loss of power (if within a reasonable dis- 
tance), it is never worth while to have the chaff machine 
placed on an inconvenient site to avoid it. In the example 
steading at Plate VI. the chaff house is placed at the end of 
the bullock shed, so that the truck upon the tramway has 
direct communication from the chaff machine to the steaming 
apparatus and the feeding troughs of the animals. The walls 
of this room should be plastered, and a good window, with 
moveable sashes, so placed as to get rid as much as possible of 
the dust which is beaten up in cutting inferior hay. 

Root Stores. — The storing of roots for stock is a matter of 
very great importance, and few things are more indicative of a 
well-managed steading than the manner in which roots are 
preserved. The buildings for this purpose should be exceedingly 
dry, and well protected from frost. They may be made of any 
convenient shape, and should be placed in situations the most 
contiguous to the places where they are required ; but as the 
notion is now gaining ground that a railway should be laid 
down to connect the various divisions of the homestead with 



92 



BOILING HOUSE. 



each other, it is not so important where they are placed, so 
that the locahty be the one best suited for the preservation of 
the roots. Convenient arrangements should exist for unloading 
the carts when they are brought from the fields. The stores 
should be of such a shape that the roots may not be laid in 
too large heaps, as they are more likely to rot when so packed, 
and there is the more difficulty in removing those that do not. 
It is very necessary that a proper ventilation should exist for 
root stores ; a close pent-up atmosphere is the one in which 
decomposition takes place most rapidly. 

Root-washing House. — This apartment should adjoin the 
cooking house, and is for the purpose of washing the various 
kinds of roots, previous to their being cooked for the stock. 
This is a point not often properly attended to, and considerable 
waste often occurs in consequence ; a liberal supply of water 
should be laid on and proper troughs provided, and the neces- 
sary apparatus for washing be placed here. The various root- 
washing machines (of which there are several kinds) will be 
found fully described in Part II., on the machinery and im- 
plements of the steading. The room should be well paved, 
and a sink and drain provided. 

Boiling House. — The advantage of feeding animals on 
cooked food is now beginning to be thoroughly understood, 
and scarcely a farm is to be found without some arrangement 
for effecting this object. On farms of any pretension to good 
management a proper building is provided, fitted with every- 
thing necessary for boiling, steaming, and even baking the 
food to be supplied to the animals. 

It is now well known to all farmers of intelligence that the 
potatoe is rendered of much more value as food after being 
cooked, either by boiling or steaming, or what is more pre- 
ferable, baking. In fact, baking is the only true way to cook 
potatoes, there being a bitter juice exceedingly unwholesome 
in the skin (and slightly in the potatoe itself), which is not got 



DUNG HOUSE. 



93 



rid of in boiling ; hence the extremely bitter taste of the 
skin of the potatoe after it has been boiled, but after having 
been baked it is entirely rid of this disagreeable material, and 
tastes equally well with the other part of the root. Human 
beings cannot eat the skins of boiled potatoes, and it is no 
proof that animals, even hogs, like it because they eat it. 
For horses, potatoes should always be baked, as they are 
thereby rendered drier and more nutritious. 

In experiments made on a large scale on the keep of 
coach horses, a most important saving was effected by giving 
the horse a large portion of the hay steamed. All inferior 
food or bad hay is immensely improved by cooking. An 
instance of this came under my notice, a short time since, at 
Biddulph-Hall Farm, Cheshire. The proprietor, in my pre- 
sence, offered to several well-bred cows portions of heated 
black hay which were refused by each animal ; but, after the 
same hay had been placed in a wooden chest, and a jet of high- 
pressure steam allowed to pass through it (which entirety re- 
moved all the bad odour), each animal ate it in preference to 
good clover-hay which was offered them at the same time un- 
cooked. 

Fuel House. — This need only be an ordinary shed, with 
one side open, that carts, laden with any kind of fuel, may 
back up to, and shoot right into it. It should of course adjoin 
the boiling house. 

The Bung House. — It is presumed that the farmer is now 
fully aware of the value of ammonia as a fertilizer, and 
that it is the peculiar property of this valuable article to 
evaporate and fly off at an extremely low temperature ; also, 
that the pungent smell in stables, by which the cattle are 
so much injured, and himself made uncomfortable, is caused 
by the evaporation of ammonia. Now, being aware of 
these facts, it may be supposed that he will not spare any 
trouble or proper expense in endeavouring to retain and econo- 



94 



DUNG HOUSE. 



mize every atom of this valuable material ; and it is also pre- 
sumed that he is aware of the fact, that the brown liquid that 
runs from the dung heap and cattle sheds contains in solution 
the most valuable fertilizing elements of his manure. 

He, being aware of this, will not object to the introduction 
of dung houses and liquid-manure tanks. The latter are 
indeed now to be found everywhere in modern steadings, but 
the necessity of a dung house has not yet become so apparent. 
In Scotland, they are quite common ; but in England, it is 
only on what are called " example farms" that they are to be 
met with. It is quite certain now, that farmers will have to 
farm higher to meet the present altered state of their affairs, 
and this they can only do by making more manure, and taking 
much more care of what they do make : for all know that 
upon the quantity of manure you employ will depend the 
quantity and quality of your crops ; and that it is impossible 
for farmers to farm high without it. It is therefore hoped 
that no apology need be made for placing the dung houses, or 
pits, among the offices necessary to every farm steading. 

The best plan for erecting a dung house is to excavate a 
long piece of ground, about C feet in the centre, and slope to 
the surface at each end. It should be about 12 feet wide, 
and be lined and paved with brick, and coated with Roman 
cement at the lowest part. In using the word dung house I 
do not mean to recommend a covered building, but a properly 
constructed depot in which the manure shall be so circum- 
stanced as to receive no injury from rain water. Mr. Caird 
says that he considers a covered dung house as the most im- 
portant part of the whole steading, but equally eminent autho- 
rities entirely disagree with him. H. S. Thompson, Esq., one 
of the judges of the prize essays of the Royal Agricultural 
Society, in his review of these essays thus disposes of the 
question : — " The objection to covered manure pits is, the 
lightness of the manure, and its consequent tendency to heat 
itself dry with very great loss of ammonia. It certainly may 
be watered from a pump or tank, but this would only increase 



MANURE HOUSE. 



95 



the fermentation so long as the heap was Hght ; and to meet 
this difficulty it has been suggested that it should be fre- 
quently carted over. It is certainly possible, by carting or 
some other mechanical means, to give sufficient solidity to 
prevent mischief, but when the trouble and inconvenience of 
carting over a partly decomposed heap, and also the proba- 
bility of its being neglected in busy seasons, are taken into 
account, it will probably be found that in the majority of cases 
covered manure pits would do more harm than good." 

Manure House.— U much artificial manure be used on the 
farm, it mil be necessary to have a separate apartment for 
storing, mixing, and measuring it ; it should have a hard 
paved floor, and be provided with scales, weights, measures, 
&c., &c. 

Liquid-manure Tanks. — The great value of the liquid ex- 
crements of animals is now well understood, and no farmer 
can be found who would not like to have proper tanks for the 
preservation of his liquid manure. In fact, tanks for this 
purpose should be provided for every description of holding, 
from the smallest cottage to the largest farm. We have be- 
fore alluded to various reasons why they are not constructed 
by tenant farmers, and there can be no doubt that every land- 
lord is bound to provide them, as part of the ordinary appur- 
tenances of the farm. 

It is usual to place the liquid-manure tank in the centre of 
the yards ; but, as there is no good reason for so doing, I 
should recommend it to be placed in some convenient spot 
outside the general boundary of the homestead, which all the 
pipes from the various courts, hammels, stables, sheds, &c., 
may deliver to, and that the spot be chosen as conveniently 
accessible as possible to the farm roads. 

If the dung house can be placed near it, so much the bet- 
ter ; but few forms of ground plan would admit of it. 

Liquid-manure tanks may be constructed of any shape, but 



96 



DUNG HOUSES. 



for small farms, a round one is the best and cheapest. This 
will be constructed in the ordinary manner of building wells ; 
the bricks should be set in cement, and the whole be Hned 
with cement after. 

The excaTation for the tank should be made much larger 
than is required for the brickwork, that a good thickness of 
puddling may surround it, and the same under the bottom ; 
if there be not, it will be found a very difficult matter to pre- 
vent soakage into the ground. The top of the tank should 
be domed over in brickwork, with a man hole left in the cen- 
tre ; this to be covered with a stone having a ring in it. A 
liquid-manure pump should be placed at the side of the tank, 
•with the usual arrangements for filling carts, or forcing it 
through pipes^ as is done at Mr. Huxtable's and other places.* 

* Mr. Huxtable thus describes his plan. Hitherto the expense of 
cartage has been an effectual impediment to the application of the con- 
tents of our tanks, except to a few fields around the homestead ; and 
therefore there has been, so far as T know, no systematic delivery of the 
precious fluid over all the farm. I have accomplished this, I think, both 
effectually and economically upon 60 acres of one of the farms which I 
occupy. It has been suggested that cast-iron pipes would be the cheap- 
est and best channels of conveyance ; but I am confident that they 
would not long resist the corrosive action of the urine at the joints : in 
proof, I appeal to the escape of foetid gas from the pipes in every town. 
I commenced with wooden pipes carefully jointed; and I am very well 
satisfied with them where they have been tested by an adequate pressure 
of fluid, and doubt not that larch and elm thus bored will be very lasting. 
But subsequent inquiry and experiment have led me to prefer well-burnt 
clay pipes of at least an inch in thickness, and properly prepared for the 
purpose, and capable of bearing 200-feet pressure without any symptom 
of moisture oozing through the pores. These pipes, of one inch and 
seven-eighths diameter, are sold in the adjoining parish of Twerne Minster 
for 7d. per yard. The joints, which are of a peculiar shape, are secured 
with cement. These pipes are placed about 2 feet underground, and at 
every 200 yards is inserted an upright column, bored to the same gauge 
as the pipes themselves. On the top of these a spout, when uncorked, 
will deliver the liquid; if it be not wanted there, finding no vent, it 
rushes onwards to the next stump, 200 yards off. 



MANURE TANKS. 



97 



The annexed table shows the contents of various sized tanks 
in gallons at per foot of depth. 



Table showing the Quantity of Excavatioji, the NumheT of 
JBricTcs required to stein the Tank, and Content in G-allons 
for every Foot %n depth. 



Diameter in 
the Clear. 


Cubic Feet of 
Excavation. 


1 -brick Rim 
in Cement. 


Content in 
Gallons between 
Brickwork. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 






5 


0 


33 


2 


192 


120 


5 


6 


38 


5 


209 


145 


6 


0 


44 


2 


226 


170 


6 


6 


50 


3 


242 


200 


7 


0 


56 


9 


260 


230 


7 


6 


63 


7 


276 


269 


8 


0 


70 


11 


292 


308 


8 


6 


78 


6 


308 


349 


9 


0 


86 


7 


326 


390 


9 


6 


95 


1 


343 


435 


10 


0 


103 


10 


360 


480 



Figure 13 represents a liquid-manure tank raised on brick 
base, the Hquid manure to be pumped into it by the steam 
engine, as described in page 41. 



Fig. 13. 





r 

\ 

g - y 










■ 


t\\vm\m\\\\\ 






\ 





98 



THE DAIRY. 



The Dairy is the place where the milk of the cows is kept, 
and the room in which the important process of converting 
that milk into butter and cheese is carried on. A very large 
number of farms in England are grass farms, and to most of 
these the dairy house, and anything in connection with it, is of 
the first importance, as the whole success of the farm will de- 
pend on the judicious management of it. 

This task is always confided to, and exceedingly well executed 
by, the female portion of the household. In the constructing 
of dairy houses the most important points are the following : — 
First, That it be so placed and built that an eqnal temperature 
be preserved throughout the year ; the cold of winter being 
equally injurious with the heat of summer. Second, That 
every facility be given for preserving the most fastidious clean- 
liness, by a plentiful supply of water and the most efficient 
drainage. 

On farms where only a small number of cows are kept the 
dairy is generally a small apartment in the farm house, but on 
large dairy farms it is a separately constructed building, and 
should contain three separate apartments below, with cheese 
rooms above. 

The dairy house should be placed, if possible, on a porous 
soil, and sheltered from north and east vdnds. The principal 
apartment is the milk room ; the floor of this should be 
sunk three or four feet below the surface of the ground, and 
be paved with marble, polished stone, or tiles, and slope to- 
wards a drain, from which the water must nm freely away ; 
stagnant water, and smells of all kinds, being exceedingly in- 
jurious. Indeed, so delicately susceptible of injury is milk, 
that the smell from cheese, rennet, cooked or uncooked meat, 
will often cause considerable injury. 

About three feet from the floor should be placed, on three 
sides, shelves two feet broad, of polished marble or brick, 
upon which are placed the pans to contain the milk. 



THE DAIRY. 



99 



The best material for dairy shelves is Galway marble, as it 
is the least absorbent. If the shelves are made of wood, it 
should be beech or plane tree ; these woods being the hardest 
and most stainless. The ceihngs and walls should be plas- 
tered. The windows should be covered with fly gauze, and 
be fitted with Venetian blinds and shutters outward. A 
iock-up cupboard should be conveniently placed, and the door 
covered with perforated wire gauze. 

The Churning Room. — In this apartment is placed the ma- 
chinery for converting the milk into butter. This is worked in 
various ways ; when large, the motive power of the homestead 
is employed in driving it by connecting it by a lay shaft, or 
by bands. When the dairy house is a detached building, a 
horse wheel is often placed in a shed outside the churning 
house. The presses for squeezing the curd are placed in this 
room. As the temperature of the milk, in the churning 
room requires to be regulated, a steam pipe is introduced 
from the boiler in the scalding house and applied to the 
churn. The temperature of the milk room may be regulated 
in the same way. 

The Scalding Room should be a roomy apartment pro- 
perly fitted up with a steam boiler and copper, a rinsing tank 
and sink. The floor should be paved with stone or brick set 
in cement, and should have a good fall in every direction 
towards the drains. An unlimited supply of water should be 
provided for this. Outside the building it is as well to have 
a lean-to shed, with benches, upon which are placed the 
milk pans, tubs, and other utensils, to dry. 

The Cheese Room is usually placed in the upper floor of 
the dairy house ; it must be dry and airy, or the cheeses will 
dry unequally and have a spotted appearance, besides being 

*f2 



100 



THE DAIRY. 



apt to heave. Cheeses should not he salted in this apart- 
ment, nor should wet and dry cheeses be placed together, or 
much injury will be the result. Shelves should be placed 
round the walls, and a strong wooden framing should be con- 
structed in the centre fitted with shelves, upon which the 
cheeses are placed, and in such a manner that easy access 
may be had for the purpose of continually turning them. 

Very large sums of money have occasionally been spent in 
the construction of dairies by various noblemen and gentle- 
men, but these have generally been erected as ornamental 
appendages to the estates, and are not such as dairy farmeries 
require for the mere manufacture of butter and cheese. "We, 
therefore, need not enter into the details of such ; but should 
any person be inclined to construct one, he will find one of 
the best examples in an elaborate and beautiful dairy attached 
to the farm of his Royal Highness Prince Albert, in Windsor 
Park. 

As a specimen of a first-rate dairy, we cannot do better 
than copy the description of the dairy at Mr. Littledale's 
farm at Liscard, Cheshire, from the Farmer s Magazine for 
May, 1848 :— 

"The dairy adjoining is the most perfect and beautiful we 
have ever seen. It is a large oblong square room, elegantly 
and usefully fitted up. The floor is formed of Kean's patent 
cement, of a chocolate colour, and was laid in one piece ; but, 
by white lines of composition introduced, let into grooves 
made on the surface, it resembles fine pavement in large 
squares. There are two tables, one on each side, made of 
sycamore, with turned pillar legs of the same ; and the whole 
of almost snowy whiteness from washing. There is a massive 
marble table at the further end. Three very large octagonal 
shaped leaden milk coolers stand in the centre, each on an 
ornamental pedestal. The walls above the tables, to the 
height of about twenty inches, are lined with glazed Stafford^ 



WOOL ROOM. 



101 



shire tiles, resembling small squares of veined marble. There 
are ten square ventilators round the sides. The roof is of the 
pavilion or curved form, groined, with a handsome foliated 
centrepiece, which, being in open-work, leads the air to a 
large ventilator at the top of the building. The walls more 
exposed to the sun are built with a hollow space of three 
inches in them, through which a current of air passes, and 
there is a double ceiling, for the same obvious purpose of 
keeping an equal temperature in summer and winter. The 
milk dishes are all of glass, of various sizes, and both round 
and oval. These (glass being a non-conductor) are, for the 
preservation of the milk, and for throwing up the cream, 
found to be superior to vessels of the usual materials. The 
room is, in fine, a perfect model of a dairy in elegance, 
cleanHness, and adaptation. The milk kits, or pails in which 
the milk is brought from the shippons, are all beautifully 
made of sycamore, and are kept so clean that the wood, like 
the tables, is white and spotless, and the iron hoops of daz- 
zling brightness." 

The plan of this dairy will be found in the plan of the 
Liscard Steading. For the utensils and manner of fitting up 
presses and chums, see the chapter on the Utensils of the 
Dairy, Part II. 

Plate 14 is a plan of a Dutch dairy house, with horse 
gear attached. 

The milk-room walls in Holland are usually covered with 
small square tiles, white, or with blue pattern. The shelves 
are of hard grey stone of excellent quality, brought down the 
Rhine for that particular purpose. The floor is of hard 
clinker bricks set in cement, or of marble something like the 
shelves. The process of butter and cheese making in Hol- 
land is carried on with great care and skill. 

Wool Room. — On large farms where many sheep are kept. 



102 



THE DAIRY. 




ENGINE HOUSE. 



103 



j ifc is necessary to have an apartment provided for this pur- 
pose, tlie storing and packing of wool being an operation of 
considerable consequence. 

The floor of the wool room should be planed clean, and be 
of hard wood, the floor boards ploughed and tongued. The 
walls and ceiling should be properly plastered with hair 
plaster. It is usual to have three strong beams extendbig 
from wall to wall below the plaster of the ceiling, for several 
purposes. In these are placed strong iron hooks ; two of 
these support the pack line used in packing the wool into 
canvas bags called packs, and the other is for supporting the 
beam of the scales during the operation of weighing the 
fleeces and packs. 

A window should be provided with moveable sashes and a 
shutter, for partially or perfectly excluding the light when 
necessary. The door should be made large enough to allow 
of the exit of the wool-packs ; six feet in height, and four feet 
in width, is sufficient. A small closet in one corner with 
shelves is also necessary, having a proper lock and key for its 
door. 

Shepherd's Store. — A small apartment in which the shep- 
herd keeps the various articles used by him, such as medi- 
cines, tar, ruddle, &c. This building should be arranged, (if 
possible,) to communicate directly with the sheep shed. 

Engijie House. — small separate room should always be 
appropriated for the steam engine, wherever one is used. It 
should be properly constructed of brick or stone, paved and 
' plastered ; it should have well-fitted windows, and the door 
' should have a good lock and key — the latter being always 
kept by the foreman when the engine is not in use, so that 
labourers or other persons who have no business there may be 
effectually excluded, and tampering or playing with the ma- 



104 



IMPLEMENT HOUSE. 



chine prevented. I know from experience this to be a Terr 
necessary precaution. 

For the manner of fitting up the engine, shaftings, &c., in 
the room, see the article on Steam Engines, Part II. 

Smithes and Carpenter's Shop. — On very large steadings it is 
found to be of great advantage to have constructed on the pre- 
mises a smith's forge, and a wheelwright's or carpenter's 
shop. They are to be found on many large farms, and 
always in use. The great loss of time and heavy expense in 
shoeing horses and doing the smith's work of the farm else- 
where, fully justifying their erection. Something is always 
giving way or wearing out ; and with renewings and mendings 
the smith need seldom be unemployed. The wheelwright's 
shop should adjoin the smith's by a covered shed, under 
which horses can stand to be shod, &c. 

The wheelwright should do all the carpenter's work on the 
farm, keeping all the buildings, as well as carts, waggons, and 
agricultural implements, in proper repair, and painting them 
at proper times. He should also be hammerman, and strike 
to the farrier or smith. Should any leisure time occur, the 
two can have a new waggon or cart in the course of construc- 
tion. On large farms, and with judicious management, there 
is no doubt that the resident wheelwright and smith will save 
a great deal of time and money to the farmer. 

The smith's shop should be not less than fifteen feet square, 
built of brick or stone, roofed with slate or tiles, and have a 
floor composed of smith's ashes, and clay, or chalk ; there 
should be a good window on one side, and a door in halves. 

Implement House, — In the old method of carrying out 
agricultural operations, very few implements, and those but of 
little value, were used. Half-a-dozen clumsy wooden ploughs, 
two wooden rollers, with one or two sets of clumsy harrows. 



IMPLEMENT HOUSE. 



105 



constituted the entire stock. The roller spent nine mouths 
of its time exposed to all weathers, at the corner of the field 
where last used, or in a green lane adjoining the land. The 
harrow, if much cared for, was reared up under the dripping 
eaves of some building ; and as for the ploughs, they never 
left the field. 

This being the farmer's practice, it may be imagined no 
implement house was thought necessary, and in the old stead- 
ings none is ever to be found. To be sure, a small place was 
sometimes contrived, by carrying the eaves of some low build- 
ing, generally the cart lodge, within a foot or two of the 
ground, into which hole a few things were occasionally cram- 
med. No new steading can be considered complete, unless a 
properly constructed apartment be provided for all agricul- 
tural implements and tools, as the dead capital in imple- 
ments, and cost of keeping them in repair, is now a very 
important item in farm accounts ; and at every agricultural 
show may be observed new implements, of beautiful and 
scientific construction, for economizing and accelerating farm 
operations ; and in nine cases out of ten, the effectiveness of 
these implements would be negatived if the working parts were 
neglected, and no encouragement is given to the implement 
maker to improve his machines by superior materials, if 
knowing it would be all thrown away by the rough usage 
they are afterwards subjected to. 

The implement house should be large enough to contain 
all the implements of the farm ; it should be thoroughly 
wind and water tight, and have a hard paved floor. The 
.walls and peiling would be the better for being plastered, and 
should be whitewashed once a year. Shelves should be pro- 
vided for placing all the moveable parts of the implements, 
wood and iron tacks for hanging up others ; a large closet, 
.with a window in it, should be also provided, in which the 
foreman would keep all extra gearing, such as plough-shares, 
..tines, duc}is' feet, chaff knives, ropes, tackles, small tools, 

*f3 



10^ 



DRAINAGE. 



and other articles. Over head a loft should he prorided, for 
placing the ladders, poles, sheep troughs and cages, and 
other things requiring length in the berth. 

In the "Royal Agricultural Society's Journal" will be 
found some judicious advice on the care of implements, by 
Mr. Crosskill, from vrhich we extract the following. " "When 
the ploughs are done with, let them be washed and put in 
their proper places ; let the same be done with the drill, and 
so on with all the machines on the farm. The cost of this 
will be trifiing, compared with the advantage. In order to 
effect it, select the most likely agricultural labourer upon the 
farm ; put the implements under his care ; make it a strict 
rule with all the men that such implements done with for the 
season shall be brought to one particular place, say near the 
pond or pump ; the man having charge of the implements 
must then wash and clean them well before putting them into 
the shed, and at a convenient time, when not otherwise en- 
gaged, or in weather when out-door work cannot be performed, 
get them repaired and paint them. At the end of this shed, 
or implement house, there might be a lock-up workshop, with 
the door to open into the place, with a few tools, paint pots, 
&c., the expense of which would not exceed 51. The man 
should be encouraged to make his duty a pleasure, and to feel 
a pride in showing his master*s implements in fine order." 

Cart Lodge. — Any ordinary cheapfy constructed shed will 
suffice for sheltering carts, &e. It may be a lean-to against 
some other building ; but it should always be enclosed on 
three sides, and be dry and thoroughly water tight. If doors 
are added it will be all the better. 

Drainage. — This is a most important point to be attended 
to, and one of those generally neglected. The eaves of build- 
ings in and about the steading must be provided with gutter* 
and spouts which empty themselves into drains, so as to 



DRINKING PONDS. 



107 



carry off, clear of all yards and courts, every drop of rain 
water that falls from the immense surface of roofing that 
must necessarily exist in all farm steadings. The drains must 
be so arranged that none of the rain water can get into the 
liquid manure tanks, as, from the neglect of this precaution, a 
great deal of money is wasted by farmers in carrying to their 
land discoloured rain water under the impression that it is 
liquid manure. 

Of the various kinds of gutters used for farm buildings, I 
am inclined to give the preference to the plan of making the 
last eaves-tile of the gutter thus : — 

This plan was exhibited in different 
sorts of tiles and slates at the Great Ex- 
hibition, with a continual stream of water 
constantly running over the roof, and away 
by the gutter so formed. It appeared 
to answer well ; the difficulty would, of 
course, be in keeping the joints water 
tight, and arranging for the fall, when the building is of 
great length. This is done by making the tiles thicker at 
one end than the other. There are such a variety of cheap 
gutters made now of zinc, iron, and other materials, that the 
expense cannot for a moment interfere with the advantage to 
be gained. Stack pipes must be placed in proper situations 
to carry off the water to the proper receptacle. 

Drinking Ponds for the stock, should be placed in a conve- 
nient situation, and be a properly formed work. The shape 
of the pond is by some preferred circular ; but, I think, if 
it has a well-formed bottom of hard stones, and side walls 
of brick or masonry, a parallelogram will be the best shape, 
deepening towards the centre — the extreme depth should not 
be more than to cover the horses' knees. Horses on no 
account should be allowed to wet their bellies, although the 
men are very fond of splashing them about in deep water, the 




108 



THE farmer's residence. 



true cause of which is to save their own labour in cleaning the 
animal. A considerable thickness of good clay should be laid 
under the pond, and as a backing to the side walls. 

A good tank should be placed at such a height as to sup- 
ply the drinking-troughs in different parts of the steading. 

It is of the first importance that the ground about, as well 
as that upon which the steading stands, be thoroughly dry. 
This is best effected by its being well tile-drained at a con- 
siderable depth ; a line of ordinary field pipe tiles should also 
be laid by the side of the footrigs of all foundations around 
the whole of the buildings, the expense of which is very 
trifling, compared with the advantages of the dryness that 
will follow. 

FARMER'S RESIDENCE. 

In discussing the question of farmers' residences, it will be 
necessary to consider the dwelHng as one strictly suitable to a 
person who gets his li\ang from the cultivation of the soil, and 
proportioned to the size of the holding, the capital employed, 
and the position in society that he has a right to assume, from 
the possession and application of that capital. 

I hear it very commonly remarked now, by persons who do 
not know much about the matter (and, therefore, do not sym- 
pathize with the farmer in his present position), that he 
is much too well lodged, and that, instead of a farm-house, 
he occupies a mansion. The simple style of his forefathers is 
abandoned, and the old-fashioned house place is not now good 
enough ; but elegant drawing-rooms, boudoirs, and conserva- 
tories, are necessary to the comfort of the farmer and his 
family. They also complain that he keeps his hunter and 
a couple of dogs, and has a double-barrelled gun, not made 
at Birmingham. 

These remarks can only be made by persons who are en- 
tirely ignorant of the amount of capital necessary to carry on 
the agricultural operations of rearing and feeding; stock, and 



LIME KILNS. 



109 



i the cultivation of the soil, in a proper and efficient manner. 

^ A person carrying on any ordinary business in town or city, 
employing the same amount of capital, would live in precisely 
the same manner, and occupy a station in society in propor- 
tion to his character and wealth, exactly as is done by the 

i agriculturist in the country. It is, therefore, necessary, in 
considering the size and accommodation of his dwelling, to 
proportion it strictly to the amount of land occupied, it being 
presumed that the proper amount of capital per acre is em- 
barked in it, and that the agriculturist and his family have 
the same right to the luxuries and refinements of life as an- 

!j other person who has embarked the same amount of capital in 
spinning cotton, or printing calico. 

The construction of the farmer's residence, therefore, be- 
comes a matter for him and the architect to consider and 
arrange between them, according to their own fancy; and 
not being in any way connected with the working part of the 
steading (except in very small farms, such as plate 15), I do 
not think it necessary, in a book of this limited size, to enter 
at all into its construction, as, in modern steadings, it is well 
removed from the yards and sheds, and is not necessarily 
near them. That I am right in this view of the case is 
proved, I think, by the designs, sent to the Royal Agri- 
cultural Society, not having any residences attached, except 
for the herdsman and housekeeper. 

Kilns. — Kilns used in connexion with agriculture are of 
various kinds — for burning, as for lime, tiles, and bricks, and 
for drying, as for hops, and oats, and for malting barley. 

Lime is the protoxide of calcium, formerly thought to be 
a simple substance, but now ascertained to be a compound 
of oxygen and a metallic base. It is powerfully caustic, and 
has properties intermediate between those of an earth and 
an alkali. It is found in combination with a variety of 



no 



LIME KILNS. 



of acids— with sulpliuric acid in gypsum, and with carbonic 
acid in silicious, magnesian, and common limestone. In chalk 
and marl, and in some of their combinations, it becomes an 
important constituent of the earth's crust. It does not natu- 
rally occur in an uncombined state, and whenever it is wanted 
by itself it must be separated from some one of its natural 
compounds ; and for agricultural purposes, this is generally 
done by calcination in a kiln. 

These kilns are constructed in a variety of ways according 
to the extent of the work to be carried on, and the manner of 
burning. 

The simplest, and that generally used by agriculturists, is a 
draw kiln, constructed in the side of a hill, to avoid as much 
as possible the expense of brickwork or masonry. An exca- 
vation is made in the shape of an inverted cone (or formed in 
the solid brickwork), and lined with fire-brick, or the best 
kind the locality produces. These kilns may be made of any 
size — an ordinary one is about ten feet diameter at the top, 
and tapering down to about six at the draught-hole, as 
in fiy. 15. 

SECTION OF DRAW KILN. 




Fig, 15. 

The depth for that diameter should be not less than ten 
feet. Two iron bearing bars are laid across to support the 



LIME KILNS. 



Ill 



fire-bars, which are placed about an inch apart, and should be 
about an inch and a quarter square, with leugth for sufficient 
bearing into the solid brickwork. When the kiln is first 
started a large fire is made upon these bars, and upon it 
pieces of hmestone are placed ; and when they are well 
heated another layer of coals is added, and then more chalk, 
and so on to the top of the kiln — the quantity of fuel being 
regulated by the kind of material to be burnt, and which is 
soon found in practice. The kiln being kept properly alive 
will continue burning for any length of time without rekind- 
ling, the limestone and fuel being supplied at top as it is 
removed from the eye. 

It is usual to draw once in twenty-four hours, which is 
done by removing the fire-bars, and drawing as much lime 
through the eye as the experienced hme burner knows to be 
i| thoroughly calcined. The bars are then replaced as before. 
' There are a great variety of kilns made upon this principle, 
but varied according to the amount of business to be done^ 
and the material to be converted into lime. When very large 
they have two or three eyes to the kiln, and a vaulted passage 
is made round the back of it to allow of the lime being drawn. 

In those counties where copse-wood, furze, or fir bavins are 
plentiful, they are used as fuel for burning lime, tiles, fee, 
and when this is the case, a different arrangement is adopted, 
called a flare kiln. 

In this plan all the kilns have a regular head or roof, and 
the firing takes place at the bottom, and is continued till the 
whole kiln of limestone is calcined. The fire is then suffered 
to go out, and the lime is removed ; a new quantity of stone 
is placed in the kiln, and the firing again takes place. 

Fig. 1 7 is a section of a flare kiln, such as are in common 
use in North Hants, and in Surrey, in the neighbourhood of 
Farnham, where most extensive manufactures of red pottery 
are carried on, which, as well as lime and bricks, are burnt in 
this manner. 



112 I.IME KILNS* 



SECTION OF FLARE KILN, 




In preparing a kiln of this kind for firing, it is necessary to 
construct an arch of the materials to be burnt ; of bricks, if 
for bricks, and of the large blocks of chalk or stone, if for 
lime. To facilitate the construction of this arch, a bench is 
built all round the kiln about four feet from the floor from 
■which the arch springs. In small kilns for lime, only one arch 
is turned, but in large ones a pier is constructed through the 
centre, and a double arch is built. The largest and best- 
shaped lumps being selected for the purpose, on the top of 
these are placed the smaller pieces, as in Fiff. 1 7. 

The fuel is placed under the arches, and a large body of 
flame kept up, which finds its way through the interstices of 
the lime. The flame is increased towards the end of the 
burning ; and at last the driest and best fuel is added, and 
the whole mass raised to a white heat, by which the whole 
of the carbonic acid is expelled, and the chalk or other 
material conyerted into lime. 



SMALL FARMS. 



113 



CHAPTER IV. 

SMALL FARMS. 

The smallest size steading that can be required is that of 
a farni of about forty or fifty acres (that is, one that will 
employ one pair of horses). There are a great many of 
these to be found in England, and generally they are ex- 
ceedingly -well managed, as the farmer himself does the 
principal part of the work, and takes a part in everything. 
These little farmers are sadly in need of assistance ; for the 
accommodation for themselves and their stock is of the 
poorest possible description, the farm-house being generally a 
larger description of cottage, and the agricultural buildings 
only one or two sheds. Not having the advantage of valuable 
implements for economizing labour, it is especially necessary 
that he should have all the advantages of convenient build- 
ings. I never remember to have seen one of these little 
yeoman farmers who had a tank for his liquid manure, or the 
least modern improvement applied to his dwelling. Generally 
too humble to ask it of his landlord, and of too little import- 
ance to be thought of without. 

The accommodation consists of dwelling-house, containing 
a general living room or house place, a small parlour, a back 
kitchen, adapted for a scullery, brewery, &c., and a small 
dairy and cellar. Above are three bed rooms. 

The farm buildings consist of a cow byre for two or three 
cows, a stable for two horses, a small threshing barn with 
threshing floor and two bays, a piggery for breeding-sow 
and fatting hogs, a shed for cart, fuel, and other purposes, 
a straw yard with liquid-manure tank, with drain from privy, 
cow byre, stables, house, &c. The whole is designed to econo- 
mize labour, and supply comfort to the tenant and his family 
at the smallest possible cost. 



Plate 15. 




c^m SHED 
i4.d'K a'.o" 




GROUND PLAN OF SMALL STEADING. 



SMALL FARMS. 



115 



Fig, 18. 





elevation. 
Estimate for small Steading, 
Consisting of Dwelling-house of Six Booms, Barn, Stable, Cow 

Byre, Piggeries, Manure Tank, and Brains to ditto, 

£ s. d, 

25 yards cube of excavation , . . . . 

7i rods of reduced brickwork . . . . 

63 yards superficial of brick flat paving , . . 

16f squares of Countess slating . . . . 

166 yards superficial of render set to walls of house . . 

90 yards superficial of lath, plaster, and set ceilings . 

330 feet cube fir joists, rafters, wall plate, &c. . . . ■ — 

29 ft. 6 in. cube wrought, and rebated door and window 

frames , . , , . . 

113 feet cube fir framing to barn . . . . 

13 ft. 9 in. cube oak wrought posts and sills . . . 

1 square superficial oak threshing floor to barn . . — — — 

5 square superficial inch folding floor in dwelling-house . . 

17 square superficial slate battens . . . ■ 

4| square superficial | weather boarding to barn . , 

40 feet superficial If -inch wrought and rebated jamb linings, 



35 feet superficial l^-inch wrought partition to stalls 
142 ft. 6 in, superficial inch proper ledged doors 
230 feet superficial l^-inch braced doors to barn . 



Carried forward 



116 



SMALL FARMS. 



Brought forward 

32 feet superficial inch ledged shutters 
73 ft. 6 in. superficial inch treads and rises to stairs 
50 feet superficial inch cupboard front, with 4-panel door 
to ditto, complete . . . . . 

28 feet superficial inch wrought top and shelves to do. 
15 feet superficial inch wrought seat and riser to privies, 

30 feet superficial ^-inch wrought window linings 

122 feet superficial ^ square skirting . . . . 

12 feet run 1^-inch manger and oak curb 

1 1 ft. 3 in. superficial inch chimney shelf 

6 feet superficial 2-inch chimney shelf 

5 feet run handrail with newel bar and ballusters 

39 feet superficial hearth and back hearths . 

38 ft. 10 in. superficial 1^ mantle and jambs. . 

4 ft. 10 in. cube stone sills to doors and windows . 

10 feet cube stone plinths . . . . . 

10 ft. 6 in. superficial 2^-inch Yprk step^ , 

4 feet superficial York stone sink , . . . 

118 yards superficial painting in 3 oils | . 

40 yards superficial painting in 4 oils 
28 feet superficial iron casements glazed 

2 cwt. of wrought ironwork, for general purposes 

65 feet run of 3-inch cast-iron guttering , 

24 feet run of 2-inch rain water pipe . . . . 

2 heads, at I*. lOd., 2 shoes . . 

30 wrought iron brackets and nails to ditto 

No. 10 pair of 18-inch x garnet hinges, at Is. 2d., 9 Norfolk 
thumb-latches, at 7d.y 4 9-inch barrel bolts, at 9d., 4 
6-inch iron rimmed locks, at 2s. 6d., 4 wrought-iron 
bars to windows ..... 

4 pair of strong hooks and bands to stable and cowhouse, 

at 2s., and 2 pairs of ditto to yard gates . 
No. 1 2-inch cast-iron pump fixed to tank . 

5 feet of l^-inch lead supply pipe to ditto 
5 feet of 2-inch lead waste pipe to sink 



FARM labourers' COTTAGES. 



117 



Total cost of building, fitting, and finishing ready for occu- 
i pation, exclusive of builder's profit of the above, amounts 
I! to 207/. Os. lip. 

Farm Labourers* Cottages. — Scarcely any subject has had 
more attention bestowed upon it (by all sorts of persons, 
architects, landscape gardeners, philanthropic individuals, and 
I j others) than the social condition of labourers, and the external 

I appearance and internal accommodation of their cottages. 
I Nine-tenths of the books, both illustration and letter-press, are 

i| utterly useless for any practical purpose. The larger works are 

I I all devoted to designs of a strictly ornamental character for mo- 
I ' del cottages for labourers, bailifi', &c., and of every conceivable 

design, imported from every country of every climate in the 
i world ; these are chiefly meant to add beauty to the land- 
scape immediately adjoining some nobleman's mansion : they 
' were thought very fine in their day ; but the true Christian 
principle of constructing a house adapted to an English cli- 
mate being now properly understood, these absurdities merely 
exhibit their handsomely bound backs in the library, or lie 
t{ as heavy weights on the shelves of the bookseller's shop. 
Labourers' cottages, such as the practical farmer has to do 
with, must be looked at as positively necessary to an estate, 
and of an useful character, so that we must consider what 
accommodation labourers can do with comfortably, and what 
he can afford to pay, and give him the most we possibly can 
for his money. 

The rent of agricultural labourers' cottages varies in dif- 
I ferent places from one shilling per week, upwards, with a 
I small garden only. Half-a-crown per week is as much as 
I labourers can be expected to pay for a comfortable cottage 
and small garden, and this should consist of a house place, 
back wash-house, and two bedrooms over. An oven and 
copper should be provided, with a privy and hog-stye ; for 
though I do not think much of what cottagers gain by their 



118 



FARM LABOTJRERS' COTTAGES. 



liogs, yet I think it is a sort of savings-bank, where some- 
thing is being constantly put by that would be wasted or 
spent at the nearest beer-house.* It is quite certain that the 
designs for labourers' cottages usually made by architects, 
cannot possibly pay any fair interest for the outlay. It is 
clear, then, that as the labourer can only afford at most five 
pounds per annum, and that he must have the accommoda- 
tion we have described to live decently, every means must be 
tried to lessen the cost of constructing his dwelling ; and the 
principal points to be kept in view are, to avoid all breaks in 
the walls as much as possible, and to make everything work 
square, in order to get the whole under one roof without 
breaks. It is a common practice with the modern architect 
to design cottages with immense projecting eaves, to have the 
roofs lapping over one another, which must be the case if 
lean-tos and smaller gables are placed against the walls, and a 
large one over. This is roofing the same area twice over, and, 
of course, is an unnecessary expense. The roof should have 
no more pitch given to it than is necessary to carry off the 
water and the snow properly. The plan adopted now of con- 
structing roofs of an enormous height is bad ; in fact, some 
architects make the whole cottage out of a roof, bringing the 
eaves of some parts down to within a few inches of the 
ground, and this they conceive to be the picturesque early 
English style, of which it is, in reality, only a caricature. 

Doubtless, cottages and other buildings constructed upon 
the plan of the early English architects, will last longer than 
any other, and be the most comfortable to live in, and the 
most pleasing to look at. 

I perfectly agree that it is so, but they are by far the most 
costly ; and I must say, as I have before said, that with 
wheat at 365. they are not to be thought of by those whose 

* Some farmers object to their labourers keeping hogs, and instead 
supply them from their own styes with a fat hog at the price it stands on 
their books, the labourers paying a small sum weekly for it* 



FARM LABOURERS* COTTAGES. 



119 



necessities require them to receive a small per-centage on their 
outlay even for housing their labourers. 

The annexed design is for a double cottage for ordinary- 
farm labourers, and estimated to be erected and finished ready 
for habitation, for 95/. each cottage : — 



Plate 16. 





ELEVATION. 




PLAN. 



120 



FARM LABOURERS COTTAGES, 




Cost of Building a Farm Labourer's double Cottage. 



20 yards cube of excavation to foundation 

8 rods superficial of reduced brickwork 

16|- square superficial of Countess slating . 

200 ft. cube of fir joists, rafters, plates, &c. 

27 ft. 6 in. cube of fir wrought door and window frames 

4f square superficial of inch folding floor 

16^: square superficial of f -slate battens 

280 ft. superficial of H-incb framed partitions 

336 ft. superficial of inch proper ledged doors 

112 ft. superficial of 1^-framed and ledged doors 

32 ft. superficial of inch seat and riser 

126 ft. superficial of inch square skirting 

24 ft. superficial of \\ jamb linings 

46 ft. superficial of -|-inch window linings 

27 ft. superficial of inch chimney shelf 

28 ft. superficial of inch shelves 

54 ft. superficial of inch treads and rises to stairs . 

36 ft. superficial of 2^.inch York step 

37 ft. 6 in. superficial of l|-hearths and back hearths, 
8 ft. superficial of York sink . 

26 ft. 3 in. superficial of ^-inch mantle and jambs . 

32 ft. run of York window sill 

85 yards superficial of brick flat paving 

287 yards superficial of lath plaster, and set . 



Carried forward 



SPARRED FLOORS. 



121 



£ 8. d. 

290 yards superficial of render set . . . 

100 ft. run of compo labels outside . . , . 

Cesspool to privies . . . . . 

Rain-water tank, 300 gallons . . . . 

1 2-inch cast-iron pump . . . . . ■ — 

5 ft. run of l|-inch lead pipe . . . . . 

5 ft. run of 2-incli waste to sink . . . . — 

230 yards superficial painting in 3 oils <, <, . — — — 

No. 2 heads, ^d. ; 2 shoes, ^d. . . . . 

75 ft. run of 3-inch cast-iron eaves gutter . . o — — — 

26 ft. run of 2-inch rain-water pipe . - . — — — 

No. 2 heads, 1*. \M.; 2 shoes, Is. o . . . 

No. 30 brackets and nails . o . . — — — 

Labour fixing ditto . . . . . . — — — 

No. 22 Norfolk thumb latches, 1d.\ 4 7-inch iron-rimmed 

locks, 2*. 6^7. ; 22 pair of 18-inch X garnett hinges, 1*. 2d. ; 

4 9-inch barrel bolts, 9i. . . . . 

80 ft« superficial cast-iron casements glazed . . . — 

Exclusive of Builder's profit . , i^l89 0 0 

SPARRED FLOORS. 

Starred Floors for Cattle Sheds are among the more 
modern improvements introduced in the construction of 
farm steadings ; it is having the joists of the floor of the 
feeding houses covered with spars or laths, instead of boards. 
Mr. Hux table, of Sutton Walden, has the credit of having 
introduced this plan, but it is by no means new, having been 
used in Gloucestershire for many years, for flooring the calf 
pens and feeding sheds, as the following extract from a survey 
of Gloucestershire will prove : — 

"It is observed by Marshall, that all the calf pens in 
Gloucestershire are of a durable construction, extremely sim- 
ple, but singularly well adapted to the object. The house or 
rooms each measure 12 feet by 8 : 4 feet of its width are 
occupied by the stage, and 1 foot by a trough, placed on its 
front, leaving three feet as a gangway, into the middle of 



122 



SPARRED FLOORS. 



which the door opens. The floor of the stage is formed of 
laths ahout 2 inches square, lying the longway of the stage, 
and 1 inch asunder ; the height of the floor of the stage from 
the floor of the room is about 2 feet." 

I cannot do better in describing this method of flooring, 
than by quoting Mr. Mechi's own description from a paper 
read by him to the Society of Arts Nov. 27, 1850, on British 
Agriculture. He says: — "Having practised the system ra- 
ther extensively, I will communicate to you the details ; 
observing, that although attended, as every system must be, 
with certain disadvantages, the balance of benefit is suffi- 
ciently considerable to induce me to continue and extend it. 
The quantity of stock I have now on boards is 100 lambs, 
60 calves, 10 cows, 50 sheep, 30 bullocks, 200 pigs. "We 
are indebted to the worthy and Rev. A. Huxtable for the 
idea ; but I found a space of j of an inch between the planks 
insufficient ; I therefore measured the hoofs of the various 
animals, and arranged my openings accordingly. Thus, 

Inches thick. Do. wide. Do. space. 



For Bullocks . . .3 4 1^ 

For Sheep . . . 1^ 3 li 

For Pigs . . . li 3 li 

For small Pigs and Lambs .If 3 1 

For Calves ... 2 3 If 



For large Cots wold or Kent sheep. If opening would not be 
too large ; 1:^ openings do well for Hampshire Down lambs, 
but are rather too large for small Sussex Downs. 

*'One cannot too highly appreciate the system on heavy 
lands where the animals cannot be profitably folded during 
winter. The area allowed for each animal, and its feeding 
apparatus, is thus : — 

Sup. feet. Sup. feet. 

Small sleep . . 8 Small bullocks . 30 to 40 

Large sheep . . 10 Large bullocks . 50 to 60 

Small pigs . . 6 to 8 Large pigs . . 9 to 11 



SPARRED FLOORS. 123 

"Very much depends on the season and weather. In cold 
weather pigs and bullocks can scarcely be packed too close, 
so long as there is room for them to lie down comfortably. 
Sheep require a little more room, or ventilation. In fact, it 
requires a nice observation to adjust the ventilation and tem- 
perature. This is best done by a thermometer, because our 
t own feelings are not always a sufficient criterion. Every 
\ cattle shed should feel as comfortably warm as a drawing- 
\ room. The opening for ventilation should be at the highest 
|| point. I should say that the bars or planks may be either 
I of straight- grained yellow deal, or straight - grained hard 
i woods : the latter are to be preferred for heavy animals, as 
they wear off the edges of the deals. The depth of the pits 
: may be from two to four feet. It is necessary, once in a way, 
to level the manure to prevent it touching the boards : it 
would soften them, and cause them to break. 1 should say 
that we never sweep the floor, but the animals are perfectly 
clean. Of course the manure is taken at once from under the 
boards to the fields, without the interventional expense of a 
double carting, shooting, or turning over a dung heap. The 
, effect on the crops is unmistakable. 

I " In order to pay you 10 per cent, on your investment for 
the whole building and floor complete with troughing, &c., 
you would charge your bullocks IJc?. per week; sheep and 
pigs, Id. per week. The cost of erecting covered homestalls 
complete, with boarded floors, will not exceed Is. to Is. 3d. 
per superficial foot. 

One man on my farm feeds, and entirely attends to, 250 
pigs. It would require two men on the old straw-bed system. 
Our pigs are never cramped now ; formerly they used to be, 
owing to the manure heating under them, and the cold air 
giving those parts rheumatism. I must confess that I never 
like the look of my animals so well on them, as I do on a 
little mountain of clean straw, or a nice green pasture ; but 
this is not a question of fancy, but profit, and I am quite sure 

*G 2 



124 



SPARRED FLOORS, 



the system is quite advantageous. It is true we like a soft 
bed, and so do the auimais, but our medical advisers recom- 
mend a hard one. 

" There is a very powerful development of the muscles on ' 
boards, so much so that with fattening pigs not bred on the ' 
boards, I have found some of them get capped hocks. It is ' 
surprising how quickly you may fatten young pigs on these 
floors. Thev find it inconvenient to run about, and so divide ' 
their time between eating and sleeping, a most agreeable ' 
operation for the account book. * 

*' Another question connected with the boarded system, is 
the fly question. Where you have plenty of food, warmth, ' 
and stock, you vrill have abundance of flies. My bullocks 
could never lie down in the day time, owing to their attacks, 
and of course the continued lifting of their feet prevented 
fattening. By darkening the feeding houses, I entirely re- 
moved this nuisance, and had the gratification of putting my 
animals into a most profitable state of repose ; for if you have 
ten millions of flies, not one will bite in the dark. I find 
that some of my friends, who value the condition of their 
horses, have long practised this system. It is essential to the 
successful house feeding of bullocks with green crops during 
summer. Sheep are never struck by the fly on boards, and 
do not seem to be much annoyed by them." 

Now I have myself seen cattle houses floored in this way, 
several times, both at Mr. Mechi's farm and elsewhere, and 
cannot say that I was at all impressed in its favour by appear- ' 
ances. The cattle looked extremely uncomfortable, especially " 
when, as I once saw them at Mr. Mechi's, the floor was also ^ 
strewed over with lumps of burnt clay. I have consulted 
several farmers of great skill and sound judgment as to the 
merits of this plan, and generally found an opinion expressed 
unfavorable to it. 

Objections to it have been well and humanely urged by the 
Rev. George Wilkins in a letter to the Agricultural Gazette 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



125 



of December 4, 1847. The reverend gentleman, in speaking 
of a plan somewhat analogous to Mr. Mechi's, only less finished, 
says, " The excrements of all kinds of animals are made offen- 
sive to them by an obviously wise protection. In building 
cattle sheds, therefore, I would earnestly impress upon the 

|i attention above all things to have regard to perfect 

sweetness and cleanliness." Again, Mr. Wilkins says, " I 
lately inspected one of these sheep sheds " (an open boarded 
or sparred floored one). '^Although the weather was fine the 
wool of the poor anim^als was wet and dirty from the urine and 
dung sticking on the boards on which they lay, and when I 
entered the dirty slippery place, a smell from the gases, by the 
active fermentation of the dung and urine in the pit below 
arose offensively, and made me quickly seek an exit." 

It is som^ewhat surprising that Mr. Mechi, whose remarks 
on the advantages of supplying cattle with pure and clean 
water are so judicious, does not see that if it is a bad thing to 
adulterate water which cattle drink occasionally, with the 
manure which is suffered by careless farmers to drain into it, 
it must evidently be as bad, if not worse, to allow that air 
which they breathe every moment of their lives to be contam- 
inated by gases equally the products of the same manure, 
and which must inevitably pass into the lungs of the unlucky 
animals. In differing thus from Mr. Mechi, I am aware of 
the weight due to his opinion, and must be understood here 
only to state my own personal views on the subject ; any one 
who sees the plan can judge for himself. It has, no doubt, 
advantages, where straw is of great value and litter scarce. 

CHAPTER V. 
BUILDING MATERIALS. 
The stone used in the construction of farm steadings, need 
not be of the costly character required for the generality of 
large houses. Quoins excepted, the walls of all buildings 
may be constructed of rubble masonry ; that is, masonry 



126 



BUILDIXG MATERIALS. 



reduced to something of a square shape, or irregular course, 
but not fixed to any positive rule, or to thickness. A most 
excellent description of this kind of rubble building is used in 
Yorkshire and the ^Midland counties, called snicked rubble, 
which is a square masonry composed of all sizes, without 
reference to any horizontal hue in the wall course. "Where 
stone can be obtained at a cheap rate, like the ragged flint, 
then the only rule to be observed is to break a face in the 
flint or rag stone, and lay all the pieces in the most advan- 
tageous position to form as solid a wall as possible, and keep- 
ing the face as true as the nature of the material will admit 
of, filling all the interstices with mortar made from hydrauhc 
lime, and the sand to be used therein to be of a mixed quality, 
containing large and small grains, sharp and clean. Such 
walls carefully constructed, are amongst the most durable of 
all buildings hitherto erected. 

I have myself constructed some agricultural buildings with 
large unfaced flints, and when the lime is good it is most 
excellent work. The irregular shape of the flint makes 
capital bond ; and I found a short time after, in cutting 
through these walls to put up some machinery, that the flint 
could not be removed, but had to be faced to make fair work. 

I believe that most excellent walls for agricultural purposes 
may be made with small irregular-shaped stones, whenever 
thev can be got, if the lime is good. The quoins must be of 
brick. The cost of the work I found to be about 11. per 
rod ; the brickwork, at the same time, costing 12/. 

In selecting stone for farm buildings, durability in resisting 
weather is of more consequence than size ; and to ensure 
this, it is very important that a stone be selected of great purity 
in the grit, and freedom from aluminous combination, for it 
must be observed, that stone decomposes from two causes : 
first, from the material which combines the particles of grit 
beino- of a soluble character, though in an imperceptible de- 
gree ; and, secondly, from the particles of grit being cemented 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



127 



by alumina combined with lime, which combination is certain 
to decompose in a very short time, and is the cause why 
many good-looking stones burst after a short exposure to the 
weather immediately after their extraction. Such hard lime- 
stones as are combined with alumina are very liable to fall to 
pieces on exposure to the weather, and are altogether very 
deceptive as to their quality ; sometimes even capable of 
taking a polish, and yet dropping to pieces after exposure to 
the weather of only one season. 

If rough flag-stones can be obtained at a cheap rate, it is an 
excellent method of proceeding to lay a foundation of them 
before the rubble walling is commenced, and also at intervals 
to use them as thorough or bond courses. 

Bricks. — Perhaps in no description of buildings are hard, 
durable bricks more required than in thosfi devoted to agri- 
cultural uses ; and in no description is the quality of bricks 
less attended to. If the brick be hard, and if cement be 
used, then many walls may be constructed in a m.ost durable 
manner by joining the bricks with the cement : it has been 
too much the custom, however, to look at the shape of the 
brick in preference to the quality of hardness ; but the rule 
ought to be to look to the perfect vitrification of the brick 
throughout as the first requisite to quahty, and then look to 
shape as the second condition ; but if all things are properly 
attended to in the manufacture of these articles, there is now 
DO reason why both these qualities should not be united in 
the same brick, since the excise duties on bricks have been 
repealed, and freedom of action is allowed as to their size. 
Before commencing the building of a steading, an investigation 
of the soil of the farm in question should take place, and the 
facts be ascertained as to the quality of the soil for making on 
the spot ; and even if it be no cheaper to make the bricks on 
the farm, still if a careful brickmaker is selected, the quality 
of the article will make full compensation for all the trouble 



128 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



bestowed on the manufacture : besides, coping bricks, large 
drain tiles, hollow bricks, paving tiles, slabs for various pur- 
poses, beveled bricks for drains, and circular tanks, can all be 
made at the same time, by using a little extra care in selecting 
and testing the clay, and using a due degree of patience in 
ascertaining how much of different varieties of clay (often 
found in the same pit) will make the best mixture. 

Burned Ballast. — An article called burned ballast, has now 
come into very general use for making the foundation of 
roads. This material may be employed with great advantage 
in the construction of farmeries, for laying dry the roads and 
yards, and for filling in foundations to buildings, if mixed 
with hydraulic lime. If clay is in the vicinity of the building 
intended to be erected, and coals are cheap, then a brick- 
maker will easily produce the necessary supply by merely 
casting the clay in heaps, and mixing the clay with a due 
quantity of coals. The manner of proceeding being to make 
a small heap of coal, and surrounding it with clay ; after the 
coal is ignited, then strew over a small quantity of coal, and 
when that is ignited a further quantity of clay ; and so on 
until the heap is somewhat large : then proceed by using 
barrows and planks to put the clay and coal upon the top of 
the heap, and when it is ignited, then rake it down to the 
foot of the heap and cover it again with more clay — the great 
point to observe being that of always maintaining a perfect 
combustion in the mass, and, at the same time, enclosing the 
fire within in all its intensity : and to ensure this, it will be 
needful from time to time to insert rods into the interior to 
let in the air. Simple as the operation may seem to burn 
ballast, it will require incessant attention, otherwise it will be 
under-burned. 

Many think when a heap of clay is burned through and 
looks loose and bricky, it is sufiiciently done ; but this is a 
mistake, the ballast requires to be as hard as the best burned 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



129 



bricks, in which case it will be very much concreted into 
, blocks — these may be easily broken into the requisite sizes. 
' When coals are not very dear, ballast may be burned for two 
shillings per cubic yard ; the hard blocks will answer for 
underground work in foundations, as well as bricks. 

I Timber. — Although farms often produce more timber than 
l| is beneficial for the farmer's interest, yet with few exceptions 
j it will be better to obtain Baltic timber than use that found 
on the farm. If cills, foundation plates, steps, and some few 
other parts of buildings, be made of oak, all the rest may 
be constructed from such fir timber as is well filled with its 
own natural gum resin. 
! In a former part of this work, we have insisted on the 
advantage of saving the interest of the capital, by construct- 
ing buildings of less cost, although they may require more 
frequent renewals. This maxim cannot be carried out better 
than by constructing buildings for farmeries of timber ; and to 
do this in the most effectual and durable manner, it will be 
desirable to construct all foundations (where manure is liable 
to be lain, or as high as drips and damps may affect the 
structure) of solid brick, upon which the timber framing is to 
be built. 

The old fashioned weather-boards which overlap each other 
are the best of all forms for durability. Som.e other shapes 
have been adopted to look more like stone, but the wet is 
hable to get into the joints and cause an early decay ; there are 
abundant examples of the old weather boarding lasting from 
sixty to a hundred years, having been periodically painted. 
When it is stated that timber buildings will be cheaper than 
any other description of building, exception must be made to 
some inland districts where bricks are very cheap and sea- 
borne timber is scarce ; in such cases it may be as economical 
to build with bricks as timber, but such cases are rare — and 

*g3 



130 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



such places as where stone is extracted on the farm at but 
little cost ; it will, nevertheless, often now be cheaper to build 
with brick than use such stone. 

Lime and Cement. — But little care is ever exercised in 
selecting the proper materials for making lime, nearness and 
convenience generally deciding the question as to the descrip- 
tion of the lime to be used : from its being one of the mate- 
rials required for ameliorating the condition of the land, it 
might be thought that a greater knowledge would exist as to 
the good and bad lime, but information brought into requisi- 
tion on this head has been of a very limited kind ; however, 
the following short rules will be found useful in judging the 
sort of lime which should be admitted into the work. Lime 
which slacks with great rapidity, and immediately falls into 
fine flour and sets quickly, is not good for building purposes, 
and but seldom for agricultural purposes ; in the latter case, 
for its caustic quality in destroying moss and vegetable matter ; 
yet this is the sort of lime used in most cases for constructing 
farm buildings. The rule to be observed in choosing lime- 
stone is this : — burn some of it, and then quench it with water, 
and if it slacks very slowly so as only to be just perceptibly 
burnt or break after half-an-hour has elapsed, then it may be 
considered a good hydraulic lime (that is, will set underwater) ; 
such lime ought to be burned for so long a time that it will 
have a yellow or drab tinge when drawn from the kiln ; if, on 
the other hand, it looks white and speckled, it is under-burnt, 
and will not make good mortar. Some good limes will not 
slack unless by exposure to the air, and only fall down after 
exposure for several weeks ; such lime is called wind-slacked, 
and is the best of all limes for mortar making ; if this descrip- 
tion be well burned and then put where there is plenty of ac- 
cess to the air, and be turned over often so as to expose new 
surfaces to the weather, it will form the best mortar known ; 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



131 



such limes are generally extracted from the Lias formation, but 
other formations will oifer the materials if due diligence be 
i used in selecting them. 

Cement. — Cement is a most useful material to be used in 
I farm buildings, notwithstanding it has scarcely been intro- 
' duced for that purpose ; it will be found to be most advanta- 
geous to use this material in small buildings, instead of lime 
I mortar, and thin the walls so much as will make them cost no 
more than an ordinary mortar wall, but great care is required 
in obtaining a good strong cement, quite fresh, and allowing 
the workmen to use only a small quantity at a time ; if this 
requisite rule be not rigidly observed the cement will be infe- 
rior to mortar. Cheap cement is often not worth having, but 
if good and proper precautions be used, the joints so formed 
will be as strong as the bricks themselves. If hydraulic lime 
or cement be used the quantity of sand must be diminished in 
proportion to its cementicious power, for the stronger the ad- 
hesive properties of either mortar or cement become, the less 
sand they can carry. In joining bricks neat cement is the best, 
and if care be exercised, it is as cheap as cement and sand com- 
bined ; in no case more than one of sand and one of cement 
ought to be used, and the lime should be so strong and binding 
that it ought not to require more than one and a half of sand 
to one of lime ; although the lime generally used will carry as 
much as three of sand to one of lime. 

Thatched Roofs. — Formerly two-thirds of the roofs of agri- 
cultural buildings in England were covered y\\ih. a thatch of 
some description, and at the present time it is a favourite roof, 
and deservedly so, for it possesses some great advantages over 
other roofs, the prinipal one of which is that of maintaining 
an equal temperature throughout the year — the inclement 
cold of winter, and the excessive heat of summer, being both 
excluded in a greater degree by this material than by any 



132 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



other in common use. Also that it can be renewed and re- 
paired by the ordinary labourers of the farm, and that the 
materials are generally at hand. 

The chief disadvantages are a little extra insurance (which 
however is amply compensated by the extra comfort it gives to 
the stock), and that it is a harbour for vermin. 

There are various materials used in thatching ; the most 
common in England being the straw of wheat and rye, the 
latter being the best. Fern is sometimes used, and is said to 
last well. Ling and heath are also made use of in places where 
they abound ; and sometimes heath is used for the underlay, 
and rye straw for the top. Hoop chips for a thatch may also 
occasionally be met with ; but the best, and most economical 
in the end, is a thatch of marsh reeds, so very common in Hol- 
land and those counties of England whose physical features 
resemble it, as parts of Norfolk and the adjacent counties. 

As the process of thatching is pretty much the same in all 
materials, with regard to its principles, we shall confine our- 
selves here to describing the methods pursued in thatching 
with reeds, and those who would wish to know more on the 
subject would do well to consult the prize essays of the High- 
land Society, by Campbell and Collier, on thatching with fern 
and heath. 

The reeds used in thatching are of two kinds ; the common 
marsh reed (anmdo phragmites), and the sea reed, or marrum 
grass (formerly known as arundo arenaria, but termed by mo- 
dern botanists aimnophila arundinacea). As the latter is not 
in such common use as the other, and is better known by its 
properties in binding together by its roots the loose soil on a 
sandy sea-board, whence it is sometimes called mat grass, we 
shall confine our remarks to the marsh reed, which grows 
wild in most marshy places in Great Britain, to a height of 
from five to six feet, and is in flower about July, August, or 
September. The outer coating of all plants of the reed tribe 
contains a very large proportion of silex, and their internal 



BUILDING MATERIALS, 



133 



fibres are arranged similarly to cords laid closely together, and 
for these reasons they are nearly indestructible by the weather, 
and of course the larger the reed, the thicker is its outer coat- 
of silex, and the more durable it is. We therefore easily dis- 
cern the cause of the superiority of reed to thick straw, and 
of that again to thin, and why they are both probably inferior 
to bamboo. 

The cutting of the reed requires considerable care and 
attention. It is done in the winter, and is carried on until the 
spring starts the young plants. They are cut with a peculiar 
form of sickle, more bent than the usual one, and it is a great 
point to cut them below the water right down to the roots, as 
the reed is much superior in strength and durability below the 
water, and not nearly so brittle as above. A large number of 
boats are always seen employed in this operation during the 
season of cutting ; they are then conveyed ashore and made 
into bundles or sheaves, and set to dry, and afterwards made 
into stacks. 

A considerable number are grown on the Essex shore of the 
Thames. These, however, are not used for thatch, but by the 
builders of barges and other vessels in coating the timbers and 
planking with pitch and tar. 

In Holland, an immense quantity of the reed is grown for 
thatching ; it is much liked there, and the work is executed 
with great skill and care. All persons who have travelled 
much in Holland, must have observed the peculiarly neat and 
effective manner in which the large windmills, which are so 
thickly studded over that rem.arkable country, are covered with 
a thatch of this material ; not only the head is covered, the 
w^eather boarding of the mill, from the stage upwards, is pro- 
tected in the same manner. Farm-houses, barns, and agricul- 
tural buildings of all kinds, may be seen covered in the same 
manner, and it is considered that the thatch, if well done, will 
last fifty years without repair ; and, if repaired at the end of 
that terra, will last fifty more : and reed-thatched roofs are to 



134 



BUILDING MATERIALS, 



be found in Holland in a good state of preservation more than 
two centuries old. 

In thatcliing with reed, the workman begins at the lower 
corner of the roof on his right hand, for instance, and keeps an 
irregular diagonal line or face until he reach the upper corner 
to his left, a narrow eavesboard being nailed across the feet of 
the spars, and some fleaking (which is a little of the longest 
and stoutest of the reed scattered irregularly across the naked 
spars) scattered on; the thatcher begins to "set his eaves" 
by laying a coat of reed eight or nine inches thick, with the 
heads resting upon the flanking, and the butts upon the eaves- 
board. He then lays on his sway (a rod rather thicker than 
a large withy), about six or eight inches from the lower points 
of the reeds, whilst his assistant on the inside runs a needle 
threaded with rope-yarn close to the spar ; and in this case 
close to the upper edge of the eavesboard. The thatcher 
draws it through on one side of the sway, and enters it again 
on the contrary side, both of the sway end and the spar ; the 
assistant draws it through, unthreads it, and with the two ends 
of the yarn makes a knot round the spar ; thereby drawing 
the sway, and consequently the reed, right down to the roof ; 
while the thatcher above, beating the sway, and pressing it 
down, assists in making the woik the firmer. The assistant 
having made good the knot below, he proceeds with another 
length of thread to the next spar, and so on till the sway be 
bound down the whole length, namely, eight or ten feet. This 
being done, another stratum of reed is laid upon the first, so 
as to make the entire coat eighteen or twenty inches thick at 
the butts ; and another sway laid along and bound down 
about twelve inches above the first. The eaves are adjusted 
and formed not square with the spars, but nearly horizontal ; 
nor are they formed by cutting, but by driving them with a 
''legget," a tool made of a board eight or ten inches square, 
with a handle two feet long fixed upon the back of it 
obliquely, in the manner of the tool used by gardeners in 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



135 



beating turf. The face of the legget is set with large-headed 
nails, to render it tough and make it lay hold of the butts of 
the reeds. Then another layer of reeds is laid on, and bound 
down by another sway, somewhat shorter than the last, and 
placed eighteen or twenty inches above it, and above this 
another and another, continuing to shorten the sways until 
they be brought off to nothing, and a triangular corner of 
thatching formed. After this, the sways are used their whole 
length, whatever it happens to be, until the workman arrives 
at the finishing corner. By proceeding in this irregular 
manner, seams between the courses are prevented, and unne- 
cessary shifting of ladders avoided. 

The face of the roof is formed and adjusted like the eaves, 
by driving the reed with the legget ; which operation, if per- 
formed by a good workman, not only gives the roof a beautiful 
polished surface, but at the same time fastens the reed, which 
being thickest towards the butts, becomes like a tapering pin, 
the tighter the farther it is driven. 

Finishing the ridge of the roof. — In the case of reed running 
from four to six or eight feet long, the heads meet at the 
ridge of the roof, whilst the butts are still at a distance from 
each other. For this reason, as well as for that of the wear 
being less towards the ridge, the shortest (which is generally 
the worst) need be saved for the upper part of the roof. But 
even supposing the uppermost courses to be only four feet 
long, and that the heads (belonging to the two sides) be inter- 
woven in some degree with each other, the butts will still 
remain six or seven feet asunder, and the ridge of the roof 
consequently be less, in a great measure, exposed to the 
weather. In order to remedy this inconvenience, and to give 
a finish to the ridges, a cap (provincially a roof) of straw is 
set on. Roofs thus constructed are durable, good, and cheap, 
and therefore much to be recommended. 

Hollow BricJis. — The introduction of hollow bricks has of 



136 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



late attracted considerable attention, and deservedly so, for 
there are a variety of situations and circumstances vphere they 
can be used with great advantage. 

For cottage building, they are decidedly superior to any 
other material, as shown in the example cottages erected by 
his Royal Highness Prince Albert, in Hyde Park. 

The buildings were erected with Roberts's patent hollow 
bricks, which are decidedly the best. 

The greatest advantages derivable from the use of hollow 
bricks, are dryness and warmth, as well as economy of 
construction — considerations which recommend them, as a 
preventative of the evils so constantly experienced from damp- 
ness admitted through external walls. For agricultural build- 
ings, and for inclosure, park, or fence walls, they are particu- 
larly adapted, as well as for the ordinary dw^ellings of the 
labouring classes, for schools and for houses generally of 
moderate height, and with the usual weight of roofs and 
floors, rendering internal battening unnecessary. Their 
strength may be adapted to circumstances, and where neces- 
sary, be rendered equal to that of solid bricks. When used 
for partitions, or for roof and floor arches, they are fire-proof, 
deaden sound more effectually, and are considerably lighter 
than solid brickwork. As a lining to stone or flint walls, they 
supersede the necessity for battening, and the consequent risk 
of fire and dry-rot is avoided. For cottage floors they are 
also well adapted. 

The various forms of hollow bricks proposed prior to that 
which has been patented, are all, particularly in reference to 
external walls, more or less liable to the objection that they 
either will not properly bond together, and form a substantial 
wall, or else that the headers and the vertical joints afi'ord a 
medium for the transmission of damp from the exterior to the 
interior. 

By the form adopted in the patent hollow brickwork, a 
perfect bond running longitudinally through the centre of the 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



137 



wall is secured ; all headers and vertical joints passing through 
it are avoided ; internal as well as external strength is ob- 
tained ; and every facility given for the fixing of floor plates 
and other timbers : whilst, by the parallel longitudinal cavi- 
ties, ample security for dryness is afforded, and great facility 
presented for ventilation, as well as for the conveyance of 
artificial heat, and for the transmission of pipes, &c. 

According to the specification enrolled June 15, 1850, this 
patent includes bricks and tiles, hollow or otherwise, of such 
form as will secure a longitudinal bond, whether obtained by 
the overlapping of the alternate or the parallel course of 
bricks, either with a square, a rebated, or a champered joint, 
and with a level, a sunk, or a bevelled bed. 

The dimensions of the bricks being unlimited, a size has 
been chosen, which, with the omission of the headers, reduces 
by about one-third the number of joints, and greatly improves 
the appearance of the work, giving it more boldness of effect 
and resemblance to stone, than that of ordinary brickwork^ 
twelve inches in length, including the joints, three courses 
rise one foot in height — a size equally convenient for the 
workmen in the manufacture, and in the use of the bricks of 
a larger size, their form admits of ready handling and stowage 
for transport. 

Nine patent hollow bricks of the size before described, will 
do as much walling as sixteen ordinary bricks, whilst the 
weight of the former but little exceeds that of the latter, an 
important consideration in reference to carriage, as well as the 
labour in using. 

When passing through the machine, or in the process of 
drying, any number may be readily splayed at the end for 
gables, or marked for closures, and broken off as required for 
use ; or they may be perforated for the purpose of ventilation. 
If nicked with a sharp-pointed hammer, they will break off at 
any desired line, and the angles may be taken off with a 
trowel as readily as those of a common brick. 



138 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



A sufficient proportion of good facing bricks may be se- 
lected from an ordinary burning ; and in laying them, a much 
better bond will be obtained than is usually given in common 
brickwork. 

The bricks for the quoins and jambs may be made either 
solid or perforated, and with perpendicular holes, either cir- 
cular, square, or octagonal : those in the quoins may be so 
arranged as to serve for ventilating shafts. Stone will be 
found equally applicable for the quoins and jambs, and the 
appearance of the work be thereby improved. 

Hollow bricks may be made with any good tile m.achine, in 
the same manner as ordinary draining pipes, and about the 
same cost in proportion to the quantity of clay contained in 
them. They are more compressed, require less drying, and 
with much less fuel are better burned than ordinary bricks, 
even when waste heat, or that in the upper part of the kiln, 
only is used. 

The saving in brickwork effected by the use of the patent 
bricks, when made at a fair price, will be from 25 to 30 per 
cent, on their cost, with a reduction of 25 per cent, on the 
quantity of mortar, and a similar saving on the labour, when 
done by accustomed workmen. The process of drying is 
much more rapid than in common brickwork ; and the 
smoothness of the internal walls built with the patent bonded 
bricks, renders plastering, in many instances, quite unneces- 
sary ; whereby a further saving is effected, not only in the 
first cost, but also in the subsequent maintenance. If glazed 
on the outer face — as may be done with many clays — a supe- 
rior finished surface is obtainable without plaster. 

Mr. Clayton, of the Atlas Works, Upper Park -place, 
Dorset-square, is authorized to supply dies for making, under 
licence, the patent bonded hollow bricks, by his own patent 
hollow brick and tile machine, to which the prize of the 
Royal Agricultural Society was awarded at the Exeter meet- 
ing for 1850. 



BUILDING MATERIALS. 



139 



The following statement of Mr. Roberts, shows the com- 
parative cost of bricks in a rod of reduced brickwork built 
with ordinary bricks of the common size, and a rod built with 
patent bonded hollow bricks : — 



4300 ordinary bricks — 

£ s. d. £ s. d. 

at 20*. 4 6 0 at 24s. 5 3 3 

2450 patent bonded H bricks — 
at 25*. 3 13 at 30*. 3 13 6 



Saving in bricks per rod — 
1 4 9 



1 9 9 



£ s. d. 

at 28«. 6 0 5 

at 35*. 4 5 9 

1 14 8 



with the angle and 
building 



Being 29 per cent, in favour of using the patent bonded hollow 
bricks, in addition to a considerable diminution in the cost of 
cartage or transport, and of 25 per cent, on the mortar and the 
labour. 

Form of hollow bricks No. I. — For the 
external bricks, which 
reveal bricks, are sufficient for 
9-inch walls. 

No. 2. — For the internal bricks, required 
to form any thickness of wall beyond 9 
inches. 

No. 3. — For angle bricks, lOi-inches long, 
with one splayed corner, which answer for the 
quoins for 4ii-inch reveals, and for jambs. 

No. 4. — For reveal, jamb, and chimney bricks, 
9 inches long, 4| inches wide. 

No. 5. — For 4-inch wall bricks to bond 
with the splayed bricks, which will also 
answer for floor and roof arches, not exceed- 
ing 7 feet span. 




140 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



No. 6. — For chamfered or saddle-back 
coping, to suit a 9-incli wall, with man- 
drills and horses. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Of the different tradesmen or workmen employed — 
The Excavator is the first person employed, as his operations 
are confined to the excavating for the foundations of walls, &c., 
and the preparing the surface of the ground to the necessary 
levels, for the yards, roads, &c. ; he is usually paid by the 
yard cube for excavating, and by the yard superficial for 
trimming, soiling, and otherwise forming the surface. 

It is important, in taking out the earth for foundations, to see 
that all accidental soft wet spots through which the line of the 
plan may pass, be properly removed, and that the level be 
made up with concrete, large stones, or old bats. A good 
foundation upon which the building is to stand is positively 
necessary, yet it is the most often neglected, and very lately an 
instance came under my notice, of an expensive building 
having nearly all to be pulled down in consequence of the 
foundation at one angle having sunk ; caused, it was disco- 
vered, by this part of the building occupying the site of a 
pond, and which had not been observed when the foundation 
was got out. 




AYORFMEN EMPLOYED. 



141 



The BricJdayer follows the excavator, and prepares the 
foundation of the building by laying in a thickness of concrete 
or some other hard material^ upon which he commences the 
construction of the buildings. The principal point that he 
has to attend to, is, first the keeping up a proper bond, by 
having a sufficient number of through-headers. It is a com- 
mon practice with country bricklayers, when using up old bats 
with the new bricks to put in two bats instead of one header ; 
both sides of the wall will appear, when finished, as though 
they were properly constructed, although the work would be 
in a most unsound state. The system of laying the bricks is 
either English bond or Flemish bond. In the first, the 
courses are laid alternately with headers and stretchers ; and 
in the latter, the stretchers alternately with headers in the 
same course, with a piece of brick, called a closer, near the 
ends of each course, in order to break the upright joints. Of 
the two plans, the English is by far the stronger. Great care 
should be taken that the whole of the brickwork, whatever 
form the structure, should be self-supporting, not in any place 
resting iipon timber that may be worked into it, xiU openings, 
of whatever kind, shoidd have relieving arches turned over 
them, the lintels should only support the filHng in between 
the soffits of the arch and itself, and be merely for the con- 
venience of receiving the fittings for the doors and windows. 

The courses should be laid true and level, and the wall built 
perfectly upwright, as uneven work weathers worse than when 
perfectly done. Hoop iron, where necessary, should be worked 
into the wall, it being better than bond-timber, and not more 
expensive. 

A bricklayer will lay in one day when well served by his 
labourer, about 1000 bricks. 

Brickwork is measured and valued by the rod, or the cube 
yard- the latter is used in large works, such as railways, and 
the former is employed in all ordinary buildings, such as we 
have to do with. 



142 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



A rod of brickwork measures 16^ feet square, li brick 
thick, and is called the reduced, or standard rod ; it also con- 
tains 306 cubic feet, or 11^ cubic rods. 

A rod of brickwork, laid 11 courses to the foot, will require 
4350 stock bricks ; if laid dry, 53/0. 

A rod of brickwork, laid 4 courses to gauge 12 inches, con- 
tains 235 cubic feet of bricks, and 71 cubic feet of mortar, 
and weighs 15 tons. 

A rod of brickwork requires 18 bushels stone lime, and 3^ 
loads of sand ; or 27 bushels of chalk lime and 3 loads of 
sand ; or 36 bushels of cement, and 36 bushels of sand. 

A hundred pecks, or 22 stricked bushels of lime, is called a 
hundred. 

18 heaped bushels, or 22 stricked bushels, of lime is equal 
to 1 yard cube ; the same of sand is 1 yard cube. 

36 stock-bricks laid flat, or 52 on edge, will pave 1 yard 
superficial. 

36 pa\dng-bricks laid flat, or 82 on edge, will pave 1 yard 
superficial. 

9 12-inch tiles, or 13 10-inch, will pave 1 yard. 
9 12-inch tiles, or 13 10-inch holes, will pave 1 yard. 
140 Dutch clinkers, on edge, or 125 laid flat, will pave 
1 yard. 

PAN TILINGS. 

180 pantiles, laid to a 10-inch gauge, will cover ] square 
superficial yard. 

160 ditto, ditto, to an 11 -inch gauge, will cover 1 square 
superficial. 

150 ditto, ditto, at 12 inches, 1 square superficial. 

1 bundle of laths, and li cwt. of nails, required to 1 square. 

1 square of pantiling will weigh about 7i cwt. 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



143 



PLAIN TILING. 

760 plain tiles laid to a 6-iiicli gauge, will cover 1 square. 
660 ditto, ditto, to a /-inch gauge, will cover 1 square. 
5/6 ditto, ditto, to an 8-iucli gauge, wiU cover 1 square. 
1 bundle laths and nails, 1 peck tile-pins, and 3 hods of 
mortar, to a square of plain tiling. 

I square of plain tiling weighs about 14^ cwt. 
A hod contains 20 bricks. 

The Mason. — The business of the mason is to construct the 
various walls and other works in stone. The manner of per- 
forming this differs according to the peculiar materials he has 
to use, but there are certain technical terms applied to the dif- 
ferent manners of laying the stone which forms the work, that 
are common to all descriptions of stone. The first is called 
Ashlar work ; in this the stone is all dressed and squared, and 
the whole work finished in the best manner. This is, of course, 
the most expensive mode of constructing with stone, and cannot, 
in any way be suitable for erecting agricultural buildings, as 
equal strength and beauty may be attained by other and 
cheaper methods. 

The second manner is called Coursed work, in which the 
stones are assorted into sizes, and laid in regular courses, 
having been previously squared. 

The third manner is called Rubble work, and is the one best 
adapted to the purpose in hand ; in this the stones are used 
without being squared. 

The quoins should be long and short alternately ; the long 
ones allowed to run their full length into the wall. There 
should be no stone set up on end to form jambs, but 
several stones, lying on their bed, should form this, if strong 
work is required as they have the advantage of better 
bond. 

Mason's work is charged for by the cubical content, as it 
arrives at the banker or stool at which he works. The labour 
is charged by the superficial foot, according to its character. 



144 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



whether sunk, moulded, or plain. Bubble work is charged for 
by the rod, as in brickwork. 

Pavings, landings, and all stone less than 3 inches thick, are 
charged by the superficial foot ; copings, curbs, &c. are 
charged by the foot run, dowels and mortice-holes separately. 
If heavy stones are to be lifted any height, hoisting is charged 
extra. It is important, in the erection of farm-buildings, 
(cheapness being always kept in view,) to use the local mate- 
rials, if possible ; and where this is done, I would recommend 
that local masons be employed in preference to strangers, as 
the durability of stone generally will depend upon its being 
laid on its true bed, and in a manner known only in the loca- 
lity. On many railway works I observe the stone is crumbling 
to pieces from neglect of these precautions, whereas, had the 
stone been set by those who knew its local peculiarities and 
with proper care, and if previously well weathered, these same 
works would have stood without decay for ages. 

Carpenter. — The business of the carpenter consists in con- 
structing all the various floors, roofs, and partitions. The 
carpentry of a steading is a very important part, as upon the 
judicious management of the various beams, posts, ties, 
struts, &c., the strength of the work will depend, as well as 
economy of labour and materials. Carpenters, such as are 
usually found answering to that name, in the rural districts, 
are a most incompetent set, and seldom can be entrusted with 
the smallest thing without superintendance. They cut the 
stuff to waste in every direction, and use scanthng of unneces- 
sary size, and afterwards render this too weak, by cutting out 
a great mortise-hole for a large tenon, where none may be re- 
quired. The whole of the carpentry of the steading should 
be designed by the architect, and superintended by some per- 
son ; the dimensions of the scantling being reduced to a mini- 
mum, will not allow of being weakened by these bunglers. 

The business of the joiner, in contradistinction to that of 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



145 



the carpenter is, that the former uses a plane, which the lat- 
ter does not use. The work of the joiner about a farmery is 
of so plain a character, that it may be done by the carpenter, 
unless it be the interior fittings of farm-houses, in which case 
I would recommend that joiners be employed who really un- 
derstand their business, the country joiners often resembling 
those in the backwoods of America, the distinction between 
whom and a carpenter is stated to be, that the carpenter is an 
axe and a saw with a dollar a day, and a joiner is an axe and 
a saw with two dollars a day. 

The labour of the carpenter is valued at per square (one 
hundred feet) superficial, and the labour of the joiner, at per 
foot superficial, according to the description of work. Mould- 
ings and thin stuff wrought at per foot run. 

The Plumber. — This tradesman requires superintendance 
as much as any one ; his business chiefly consists in laying 
down sheet-lead for a variety of purposes ; such as gutters, 
flats, flashings, linings, &c., &g. The lead is made in two 
ways : the one is called milled or rolled lead, and the other 
cast-lead ; it is supplied at per cwt., of the various thicknesses 
specified, as 41b. 51b. 61b. or 71b. to the foot superficial. It is 
heavy and expensive, and therefore offers great temptation to 
dishonest persons to impose upon their employers ; and, I am 
sorry to say, I know instances of apparently highly respectable 
persons contracting to lay down lead of a certain weight, and 
laying down something much lighter. This is not a common 
case : it is to be hoped that few builders would be found taking 
such dishonest advantages, but it is a very common case to find 
the light lead laid down, for the reason that the contractor sublets 
the plumber's work to some small man, perhaps, and neglects 
to look after it himself, considering that if the architect is 
satisfied, he ought to be ; and a great injustice is done the 
proprietor of the buildings, by the neglect of one and the ras- 
cality of the other. 

Cast-lead is manufactured sheets of lead, cast from old lead 
by the plumber at his own shop, (and not milled). This lead 

*H 



146 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



ought not to be used for any purpose of the least consequence, 
as it is sure to be air-blown, and has small holes in it, through 
which the water is sure to find its way. Lead should never be 
laid for the water to stand upon it, on roofs or other places, 
but always have proper current found for it to run off. 

Flashings should be all turned up into the joints of the 
brickwork, and secured with wall-hooks not more than 18 
inches apart, and the joint made good with cement. All lead 
services and waste-pipes are jointed and laid by the plumber; 
and care should be taken to see he uses a sufficient quantity 
of solder. 

Plumber's work is paid by the cwt., and lead pipes are mea- 
sured and charged by the foot run, according to its size ; and 
the joints are counted, and charged also according to the size 
of the pipe so jointed, and no allowance for solder is made. 

Weights of Lead Pipe per Yard. 

lb. oz. lb. oz. 

^ inch . .33 1| inch . . 11 0 

f „ . . 5 7 U „ . . 14 0 

1 „ . . .80 2 „ . . 21 0 

Zinc. — This is a cheap metal, and very hght, and if 
it can be managed satisfactorily, a great saving is effected. 
It is usual, in country towns, to combine the working of it 
with that of the plumber. It is, however, a very brittle ar- 
ticle, and not adapted for flats or gutters, as it is easily affected 
by the weather, and liable to buckle up and crack. 

Glazier. — This business is generally carried on by the same 
person as the worker in lead. It is valued by the foot super- 
ficial, and the price is varied according to the sizes of the 
squares, but such kinds as will be wanted in the construction 
of a farm cottage would be at once stated. It is measured 
between frame and frame, and the sash-bars are included in 
the quantity. 

Crown-glass is sold by the crate, the price varying with the 
quality. Tliere are three qualities, and a crate of 1st quality 
contains 12 tables; 2nd, 15 ; 3rd, 18. 



WORKMEN EMPLOYEDo 



147 



The Smith. — As a smith's shop is a necessary part of an 
ordinary large homesteadj it is well to construct it at once for 
the convenience of making all irregular iron work that may 
be required; but everything that is an ordinary article of com- 
merce, such as screws, nuts, bolts, hinges, locks, latches, &c., 
&c., should be purchased of the ironmonger, as they are 
well made in the district from whence they come, at a quarter 
the price they could be got for elsewhere. Formerly, most of 
the iron-work required was wrought, now cast-iron is used for 
the same purpose, and answers equally well at a much less 
price, such as gratings, stable-fittings, gutterings, rain-water 
pipes. 

The Sawyer. — In constructing a farmery, the less you 
have to do with the sawyer the better, as he is a most ex- 
pensive assistant, and sawing will be found to form a large 
item in the cost of the work. It is advisable, therefore, to 
have the scantlings well arranged, as large a quantity as pos- 
sible of the same dimensions, and as much repetition of the 
same parts as possible ; if this be done, and the place be built 
of foreign timber (which, for reasons before stated, it is advis- 
able to do), it may all be cut at the sea-port or other market 
where it is purchased, and when the sawing is done by ma- 
chinery a great saving may be effected. In this way, if the 
timber off the estate be used, and the farmery of any extent, 
it will be worth while to fit up a circular saw-bench, to be 
driven by the motive power that is intended for the steading, 
which should be the first thing fitted up. 

The Millwright is the most expensive tradesman re- 
quired in the completion of the steading. The millwright 
will be required to fit up the various machines, and the motive 
power ; to lay the shafting, and construct the necessary hop- 
pers, shoots, spout, &c., for the efficient working of this de- 
partment. In all cases this should be done by contract with 
some respectable house in the locality. In every locality 
there are persons both of capital and skill, who will undertake 
the completion of this portion entirely. 



148 



WORKMEN EMPLOYED. 



It is always wise to go to first-rate concerns, (such as Ran- 
somes & May, of Ipswich; Garrett & Son, Suffolk; Barrett, 
Exall & Co., Reading ; Hornsby, Stamford ; Tuxford, Bos- 
ton, &c. ; and for this reason, that it is only houses of large 
business who have, or could afford to have, machine tools of 
such description as are necessary for executing millwrights' 
work, with mathematical accuracy, as it ought to be, and with 
the strictest economy, so necessary for the purpose of the 
agriculturist. The use of machine-tools has cheapened 
and improved machinery immensely, and it is impossible that 
little village concerns, where everything has to be made by 
hand, can successfully compete with large manufactories ; they 
will often undertake to do things at as low a price, it is true, 
but then, " how do they do it ? " Why, there is so much to 
be done afterwards, in alterations and re-adjustments, that they 
will far exceed the large houses in price for a worse article. 

I do not think the same rule holds in reference to all the im- 
plements of the farm. Ploughs, for instance, may be made 
by a small concern quite equal, or, I will admit, better than a 
large one ; for it generally happens that the principal, in this 
case, is a man of more than ordinary intelligence, and has 
given his attention almost exclusively to this one implement. 
There are several second-rate concerns that have a great repu- 
tation for one or two particular things. 

And some of the larger firms, such as Howards of Bedford, 
devote themselves to a few things, and excel all others in the 
manufacture of them. 

There is a certain class of men called millwrights, small 
jobbing fellows, who work occasionally at the little corn mills, 
and job about. Of these men the farmer should keep himself 
perfectly clear ; they are a race fast disappearing, and the 
sooner they are quite gone the better ; they are idle, ignorant, 
and dissolute, do very bad work, and charge a monstrous price 
for it. 



END OF VOL. I. 



EUDIMENTARY TKEATISE 

ON 

agricultuhal engineering 

WLi(b Illustrations. 



BY 

a H. ANDREWS, C.E. 



VOL. 11. 

MOTIVE POWERS AND MACHINERY OF THE STEADING. 



LONDON: 
JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. 

1852. 



LONDON : 

BEADBURT AND EVANS, PHINTER3, WHITEFRIARS. 



CONTENTS. 

— ^ — 

Page 

THE STEAM-ENGINE 7 

PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINES . . 24 

STEAM BOILERS - ... 33 

WATER-POWER . . .... 49 

WINDMILLS 54 

HORSE-GEAR 54 

THE THRASHING-MACHINE 53 

WINNOWING AND OTHER CLEANING MACHINERY . . , . 72 

HUMMELING AND SMUT-MACHINES . 77 

GRINDING-MILLS . . .80 

PRESSES . 108 

MACHINES USED IN PREPARING POOD FOR STOCK . . . . Ill 

CHURNS AND UTENSILS OF THE DAIRY . . . . . .128 

SAWING-MA CHINES . . . . . . \ . . . 138 

DESTRUCTION OP VERMIN . . , , . . . .141 

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . , . 142 

RICK- YARD TRUCKS . . ' 145 



11 



INTRODUCTIOK 



In fhe first division of this elementary work on Agricul- 
tural Engineering, everything which related to the arrange- 
ment of farm-buildings, was therein stated, so far at least 
as the limits of so small a work permitted ; and the succeeding 
considerations in the present volume, will especially refer to 
the machines and implements used in connection with the 
farm-steading generally. 

Until within a few years, no machinery was regularly 
employed in the homestead ; all was done by hand — aided, 
it is true, by a few rude tools — and in many districts of 
England, at this time, scarcely a single machine vdll be 
found in use ; and it is only now in a very few farms that 
any regular system of mechanical arrangements exist for 
performing all the home operations, with the economy and 
superiority that a regular set of the most approved machines 
will do. Certainly, one or two machines may be found on 
almost every steading ; but they are improperly fitted up, 
and generally, if examined, will be found to be in a very bad 
state, and consequently, not half the advantage is obtained 
from them that would be gained if they formed part of a 
regular system, properly set up. 

Farmers, generally, are ignorant of the principles of 
mechanics, and of the ordinary details of mechanical con- 
trivances ; and until they become better acquainted with 
them, the general introduction of arranged machinery vnR 

VOL. n. B 



2 



INTRODUCTION. 



not take place ; for thej will not buy machines until necessity 
drives tliem to do so, and when they do, it is ten to one but 
out of the large and beautiful assortment they have now to 
select from at agricultural shows, and elsewhere, they will 
choose one of the very worst ; and that, from this simple 
cause — that they are not good judges of the things they 
buy. That this is the case, and the opinion of those who 
make these machines, is proved by the manner in which 
they try to attract and deceive the farmer, by painting the 
machine of the most gaudy colours, — the brightest reds, 
Hues, greens, and yellow. This painting and decorating is 
only to hide the rude workmanship and bad materials, that 
would be evident to the most unpractised eye, unless so 
covered up. I do not mean to say that this is now the case 
nearly so much as formerly, or that it is done by the large, 
leading firms; but, nevertheless, wherever such things 
are congregated, a large number would cut but a sorry 
figure, if exhibited in their naked worthlessness. No attempt 
to deceive in this manner is made by machinists, in sup- 
plying plant to manufacturing concerns, where machinery is 
much employed ; and for the very simple reason, that the 
manufacturers who employ them have taken the trouble to 
learn something of the principles and construction of the 
things used ; therefore they are not so easily deceived, being 
much better acquainted with mechanics. 

Farmers must endeavour to put themselves in the same 
position ; for now that so large a portion of their business is 
performed by the aid of machinery, it is positively necessary [ 
that they should become acquainted with the principles and 5 
construction of mechanical contrivances ; and this is by no 
means so dif&cult a matter as they would at first be Likely to 
imagine. 

The various contrivances for giving motion to the different 
parts of machines are nearly all alike. The peculiarity of 
the machine will usually lie in the arrangement, or some 



INTRODUCTION. 



3 



peculiar part to wliicli motion is given, for executing some 
particular description of work. It will not be dif&cult, then, 
for the farmer to make himself acquainted with the proper 
manner in which these ordinary points should be arranged 
with reference to each other, and the marks that would 
indicate good or bad materials and workmanship. 

If I have complained of the farmers' want of knowledge 
of the science of mechanics, I must certainly also state, that 
a great many of the makers of agricultural machines are 
equally deficient ; for worse designs, and more bungling 
contrivances, could not be found, than may be met with at 
agricultural shows, and other places, where a large quantity 
of machines and implements are exhibited ; and this is 
caused by a great number of small people, mere wheel- 
wrights, or, at most, local plough and harrow makers, 
attempting to construct, without tools or the knowledge 
necessary, agricultural machines, whose efficiency is depen- 
dent entirely upon the accuracy with which the various 
working parts are fitted up. These people often tempt the 
farmer, by asking a somewhat lower price than the first-rate 
makers, and he buys their paint-bedaubed libel on the real 
machine, carries it home, and gets it to work, when, to his 
surprise, it fails to do the work anticipated. After a few 
trials, it is thrown aside ; and he, and the rest of his 
neighbours, set their faces against the use of machinery, to 
their own injury, as well as of the community at large. 

I do most especially advise all those who are about to 
purchase the more expensive class of implements, more 
particularly barn machinery, of all kinds, to go to a first-rate 
house for what they require, and to pay a proper price; though 
I am sorry to see some large firms, who should know better, 
condescend to make things of an inferior quality for those 
who will cheapen. 

The workshops now of the eminent makers are, in every 
respect, equal to those of the great engine manufacturers and 

B 2 



4 



INTRODrCTIOX. 



machinists. Thej possess the same plant and tools, for 
executing their work with mathematical accuracy, despatch, 
and studied economy. Large capital enables them to pur- 
chase materials at better and cheaper markets ; character 
is a guarantee tliat they will sell that only which is what it 
represents itself to be. These houses, I am glad to see, are 
getting rid of the gaudy-coloured paints. Mr. Crosskill has 
exhibited all his implements and machinery at the Great 
Exhibition in Hyde Park, without paint of any kind, — a 
practice which, I am glad to see, is being imitated by many 
others. Messrs. Barrett & Exhall painted everything a 
simple lead colour ; and these two stands far exceeded in 
appearance any others in the place. 

What I have said in reference to the inability of small 
makers to compete, either in price or quahty, with the 
larger firms, I do not intend to apply to the smaller imple- 
ments, such as ploughs, &c., as it is quite possible that 
a man of superior intelligence may, from having devoted his 
time and abihty to the perfecting of one or two implements, 
equal, or even surpass, the large firms in the design and 
workmanship of such implements. The best ploughs do 
not usually come from them ; neglect is observable — 
the attention being taken up with machines of a more 
expensive character (though here we must except Messrs. 
Howard, of Bedford, and Messrs. Eansome, of Ipswich). 

I think it is an admirable plan that has been adopted by 
Messrs. Deane, Dray, & Deane, of Swan-lane, London- 
bridge, to act as agents for a variety of makers, in different 
localities, many of whom have become celebrated for 
the perfection to which they have brought particular 
machines and implements. Messrs. Deane, Dray, & Co. 
have here collected under one roof the best of everything, 
from the different parts of England. Persons have been 
recommended to purchase through this house, with satis- 
faction. This fi.rm, selhng such immense varieties, can 



INTRODUCTION. 



5 



always recommend that whicli is best for tlie particular 
locality and purpose that may be required. An establish- 
ment upon this plan should exist in every large town in 
England. 

Whenever it is intended to fit up thrashing, cleaning, and 
chaff-cutting machines, as part of a regular system, most 
certainly one large house ought to be employed to execute 
it. This can be done by contract for the whole, and at a 
great reduction in price. 

Machinery to be driven at high velocities, should be much 
better framed together, than the machines usually sold as 
separate machines. "Where one house fits up the whole 
barn-work in a piece, they will have opportunities of 
arranging the frame-work on a much better plan to ensure 
steadiness of working. The same parties should always be 
consulted previously to the construction of buildings that 
are to contain the machinery, so that proper arrangements 
may be made for the foundations and bearings, as well as 
leaving the necessary apertures in the walls for the shaftings 
and bearings. This will save unnecessary expenses for iron 
and wood carriages, and framing to support the gear. The 
architect should always be put in communication with the 
machinists as early as possible, that they may agree upon 
the arrangement, as well as making the necessary provision 
for plant. 

Eminent agriculturists are divided in opinion, as to 
whether it is better to have a fixed engine, and the barn 
machinery regularly fitted up in a building, and bring the 
corn to the machine; or to have a portable engine and 
thrashing-machine, and take the machine to the corn. No 
doubt, there is a great deal to be said on both sides ; and on 
very large farms, with out-lying land, it is a most conve- 
nient thing to thrash in the field ; and the portable agricul- 
tural engine has been so improved and perfected, as well as 
the large portable thrashing-machines, that field- thrashing 



6 



INTRODUCTION. 



is, doubtless, done witli great facility, and in a very perfect 
manner. ISTevertheless, I do not myself think tlie system 
is so good as having the engine fixed, and the whole plant to 
form part of a regular plan. It is found in all manufacturing 
operations that the more concentrated the machinery, and 
the more all the operations are got together, and under one 
general management, the better it is ; and I cannot see vrhy 
the manufacturing manner in which farm operations are 
now, and must every day still more become, should be an 
exception to the rule ; but of this it is certain, that fixed 
machinery, permanently fitted up, will always do the work a 
great deal better, and more economically, than portable 
machines of any kind ; — that a fixed steam-engine and boiler, 
of judicious design, will consume a much smaller amount of 
fuel, and last much longer, with scarcely any repair, 
than a portable engine, the repairs of which will be found 
enormous, as compared with the fixed engine, when extending 
over a number of years. 

I am inclined to think that the preference is given to 
portable engines, chiefly because of the want of properly- 
contrived homesteads. The work requiring to be done is 
distributed about, instead of being concentrated, and brought 
under one roof ; and often there are two or more small sets 
of buildings in the same farm, instead of one general home- 
stead. Under these circumstances, scarcely any other than 
a portable engine could be used ; but when a regular system 
of railways is laid down to every part of the farm, and the 
liquid manure delivered through pipes to every field, 
portable engines will cease to be required, and the advantages 
of fixed ones of large size fully appreciated ; every duty that 
can will then be thrown upon it, and but few days in the 
year will this important auxiliary of the farm be suffered to 
remain idle. 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



7 



CHAPTEE I. 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

The steam-engine is the real motive power upon which 
farmers will have to relj ; for, although in no case where 
water power can he got, should it be neglected, yet it will be 
but with a comparatively small number of steadings that this 
power is available. Windmills as motive power are not to 
be thought of, and horse-gear work will only be used on 
exceedingly small farms. 

"We have no space here to discuss whether the steam- 
engine should be erected by the landlord or not : the general 
opinion seems to be that it is to be considered as a part of 
the ordinary dead stock of the farm, and that he will carry 
it from one farm to another, the same as he now does a cart 
or waggon. The advantage of having one is now generally 
admitted, so that our object must now be to lay before the 
farmer, in as concise a manner as possible, some account of 
this valuable machine, and the various forms in which it is 
constructed, and endeavour to point out which is the most 
suitable for his purpose ; for, although steam-engines have 
been and are daily being constructed upon all sorts of plans, 
yet it is only a few of the simplest of these, and of such as 
have stood the test of experience, that can be considered at 
aU adapted to the purposes of agricultural engines. The 
first steam-engines erected for performing the heavier duties 
of farmsteads were erected in Scotland about 1825, and are 
stiU in constant use : they were aU of the condensing reci- 
procating description, and, though erected at a great cost, 



8 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



have not deterred tlie enterprising agriculturists north of the 
T\Yeed from continuing erecting such and more suitable 
engines up the present time; and now in Scotland nearly every 
farm of anj extent is provided with this valuable auxiliary. 

As this little book is an elementary treatise, and intended 
for the perusal of farmers, and not engineers, it may not be 
out of place to describe the principle and manner in which 
steam is made to play so important a part ; and those who 
have a little knowledge, as well as those who have none 
at all, upon the subject of steam- machinery, I recommend to 
peruse Dr. Lardner's elementary treatise, written expressly 
for this series of Mr. TVeale's rudimentary volumes ; — they 
vnR there find the subject treated in the simplest possible 
manner, yet sufficiently detailed as to give a good general 
knowledge of this important subject. 

The mechanical action of steam is usually accomplished by 
a piston moving in a cylinder. The cylinder is a tube in most 
cases of a greater length than the proportion of its diameter. 

The piston is a plug fitted accurately to the bore of the 
cylinder, not so tightly as to prevent its being easily slid 
from one end of the cylinder to the other, yet sufiiciently 
so as to prevent the passage of steam between it and the side 
of the cylinder. 

Attached to the piston on one side, in its centre, is a 
circular bar of iron, accurately turned from end to end, called 
the piston-rod. 

Each end of the cylinder is closed by lids, through one of 
which the piston-rod passes ; this is kept perfectly steam- 
tight by a packing of hemp soaked in oil and tallow. 

A blast of steam being admitted on one side, the piston is 
forced onwards to the other end, and a similar blast being 
admitted on that side (and the means of escape being opened 
on the other), the piston is then pushed back to its former 
position ; thus the primary motion produced by steam power 
is an alternate motion backwards and forwards in a straight 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



9 



line ; but hj an infinite number of Tvell-known mecbanical 
contrivances, tliis alternate motion may be made to produce 
any other kind of motion that may be desired ; thus, we may 
make it keep a wheel in constant rotation, or move a weight 
continually in the same straight line, and in the same 
dh-ection. The various details by which these objects are 
effected, and which constitute the working parts of the 
engine, we will now proceed to describe separately. 

First, the means by which steam is admitted into and 
allowed to escape from the cylinder. This requires two 
apertures to be made at each end of the cylinder, one for the 
admission, and the other for the escape, of the steam ; the 
first must have a communication with the boiler, and the 
latter with the vessel where the steam is condensed, as in 
condensing engiues, or into the atmosphere, where it escapes, 
as in high-pressure engines. 

These apertures, or steam-ports, must of necessity require 
to be alternately opened or shut, which is done by con- 
trivances called puppet- valves — those which open a communi- 
cation with the boiler being called steam-valves, and those 
which open the communication with the condenser are called 
exhaust-valves. 

I'hese valves are conical discs, fittiag lightly into holes, 
from which they are lifted or drawn, and to which they 
return alternately : they are made of gun-metal, with their 
faces ground so as to fit with the greatest precision. 

In lieu of these valves an arrangement is often made for 
effecting the same end by what are called slides. The two 
openings to the cylinder in this case, being ground to a flat 
surface, upon these two plates or discs, also ground to a true 
surface, pass backwards and forwards, thus covering or 
uncovering by pairs the openings for the admission or escape 
of the steam. 

The manner in which these valves act is thus : supposing 
the cylinder to be placed in a vertical position (which it is 

B 3 



10 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



not always), when the piston arriyes at the top of the 
cylinder, two valves, the upper steam-valve and the lower 
exhaust-valve, are required to be opened, and at the same 
moment the two other valves, the lower steam-valve and 
upper exhaust-valve, must be closed. Now, as all these 
movements are simultaneous, it may be easily imagined that 
the four valves may be so connected that a single movement 
imparted to them should open one pair and close the other. 

When the piston arrives at the bottom of the cylinder, 
a single motion in the contrary direction will evidently 
effect the object to be attained, that is to say, to open the 
lower steam-valve and upper exhaust-valve, and close the 
upper steam-valve and lower exhaust-valve. This will be 
better understood by reference to fig. 1. 



Fig. 1 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



11 



To render tlie engine self-acting, some contrivance must 
be adopted by wbich these valves will be regularly opened or 
sbut by the action of some part of the engine itself. In the 
early history of the steam-engine, a boy was employed to 
open and shut these valves, but they only made six or eight 
strokes per minute in those days. A boy so employed, 
named Humphrey Potter, was the first who made the steam- 
engine self-acting by adding what he called a scogger ; that 
was a contrivance attached to a portion of the machine in 
motion, which opened and shut the valves, during which time 
the boy was enabled to scog or skulk. This was the origin 
of what is called hand-gear, and which is still attached to 
some large engines, but not to any likely to be used by 
agriculturists except for the purpose of lifting water, which 
will be found described in Part III. of this work. 

The means generally adopted for opening and shutting 
valves and working slides is by what is caUed an eccentric, 
as seen in fig. 3. 

Fig. 3. 




This consists of a circular plate of metal, a a, fixed upon 
a shaft, E, at some distance from its geometrical centre. 
Eound this eccentric point it is made to revolve, and in 
revohing it is evident that its geometrical centre revolving 
round its centre of motion will be thrown alternately to the 
right and left of such centre. 

Eound this cncular disc is placed a ring, d, within 
which it is at liberty to turn, but not to turn the ring with 



THE" STEAM-ENGINE. 



it ; tlie ring will consequently be thrown alternately to the 
left and right of the centre on which the eccentric plate is 
made to turn, and the throw or length of its play right and 
left will be equal to twice the distance of the geometrical 
centre of the disc to the centre on which it actually turns. 
To this ring is attached a bar, b. 

As the centre is thrown alternately right and left of e by 
the revolution of the disc, the point e receives a horizontal 
motion, right and left, to a like extent. The motion is 
transmitted by means of the levers, y ff, to the slides of the 
cylinder by the mechanical arrangement shown in the cut. 

With whatever force the piston be impelled, the effects of 
that force will be augmented just in proportion to the amount 
of vacuum produced in that part of the cylinder towards 
wbich the piston is pressing. Now, if one cubic foot of 
steam be reconverted into cold water, it will be reduced to 
one cubic inch of liquid, and we shall get the entire cubic 
foot (minus one inch) of vacuum, and therefore for every 
cubic foot of steam in the cylinder, we shall have a cubic 
foot of vacuum, minus one cubic inch. It is this advantage 
that is sought to be obtained by using what are called 
condensing engines, and it is to the genius of AYatt that 
the great difficulty of condensing the steam without cooling 
the cylinder has been overcome ; for previous to his time 
(1763), the steam was condensed in the steam cylinder, 
which was consequently cooled down at every stroke of 
the engine. It will not be difficult, then, to form an esti- 
mate of the enormous value of this discovery of Watt's, and 
the great advance made in steam machinery dating from that 
time, when the process by which he effected it is considered. 
Watt's invention consisted in the producing an almost perfect 
vacuum mthout in the slightest degree lowering the tempe- 
rature of the steam cylinder, and this he effected by placing 
near the cylinder another vessel submerged in cold water, 
and having a jet of cold water constantly playing within it. 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



13 



"Whenever he desired to condense the steam in the cylinder, 
he opened the communication by a valve between this vessel 
and the cylinder, and immediately the steam, by its elastic 
force, rushed into this vessel and was instantly condensed, 
leaving in the cylinder an almost perfect vacuum, and at 
the same time exposing the cylinder to no cold which could 
in the slightest degree lower its temperature. • 

Now, the second vessel, or condenser, would in time be- 
come filled with water from the jet, and condensed steam, 
as well as air, which would enter in a fixed form in the 
water, and which would be liberated by the warmth of the 
steam condensed by the w^ater. This air would, to a con- 
siderable extent, vitiate the vacuum in the condenser. 
These impediments were surmounted by the adjunct of a 
pump to the condenser, by which the water supplied by the 
jet and the condensed steam, as well as air, were constantly 
pumped out by an apparatus called the air-pump. 

To prevent the water surrounding the condenser from 
becoming warm, there is placed a pump and waste-pipe — 
the pump for supplying cold water, which, by its superior 
gravity, sinks to the bottom of the cistern, and the waste- 
pipe to carry off" the warm water which, being lighter, rises 
to the top. In this state did Watt leave the steam- 
condensing apparatus, when he died, and so it remains to 
this day ; for it has been remarked that the history of the 
steam-engine ends with Mr. "Watt's labours. 

Having, by the means which we have described, produced 
a continual self-acting reciprocating action of the piston, 
the next thing is to apply that motion to the machinery 
required to be moved, and this is done by attaching 
it at once to a beam, called the working beam : this is sup- 
ported on a fixed axis, and alternately vibrates upwards and 
downwards as it is moved by the action of the piston through 
the piston-rod. 

' Now, it is evident that the ends of the beam to which the 



14 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



piston would be attached could not move upwards and 
downwards in a straight line (as the piston-rod does), but 
must describe the arc of a circle, whose centre would be the 
axis upon which the beam yibrates. 

The piston-rod, as we have before described, is an accu- 
rately turned bar of iron, working through the centre of the 
cylinder- cover, and kept securely in that position by the 
packing in the stuffing-box, and unable to swerve to the 
right or to the left ; consequently, if the head of the piston- 
rod was fastened to the end of the beam, it would be 
strained and bent by the motion of the beam. To remedy 
this inconvenience, it is necessary to place between the end 
of the beam and the top of the piston-rod a piece of 
mechanism called the parallel motion, which accommodates 
the curvilinear motion of the one to the rectilinear motion 
of the other. This is formed in a variety of ways ; but tlie 
most common is the arrangement invented and used by 
Mr. Watt, and is considered one of his brightest thoughts : 
it is a continuation of rods, so arranged and joined together 
that while one of their pivots is moved alternately in a 
circular arc, like the end of the beam, some point upon 
them will be moved alternately upwards and downwards 
in a straight line. This will be readily understood by 
reference to the plate. 

As nearly all motions that are required for driving the 
machinery of mills are effected by the constant turning of a 
wheel upon a shaft, it is necessary now to convert this 
reciprocating motion in a straight line, to which we have 
now arrived, into, as nearly as possible, a continually acting 
rotatory one, and this is generally effected by another 
invention of "Watt's, called a crank. This is an application 
of the ancient method of giving motion to the potter's lathe, 
the original inventor of which is unknown, and even the era 
of its introduction. 

The crank is an arm attached generally to the centre of 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



15 



the wheel, which it turns in the same manner as the motion 
is imparted to a winch or windlass — a thing of such common 
application, that it can require no description here. As a 
matter of convenience, in those engines worked with a beam, 
there is interposed between the end of the beam and the 
crank a strongly formed bar of iron called the connecting- 
rod. 

Having by the means we have briefly described now got a 
self-acting machine ready to apply to any purpose required, 
there remains only one other point necessary to be attended 
to, — and that is of considerable importance, — being the 
means by which the power we have got may be kept within 
bounds, when inclined to exert itself too much, or stimulated 
when inclined to flag ; and it would be continually falling 
into the one error or the other, however well the machinery 
might be constructed, as the work it was employed to do 
might increase or decrease in load upon it. To remedy this 
defect, Mr. Watt adopted an ingenious contrivance which is 
now called the governor, shown in fig. 4. 



Fig. 4. 



16 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



A similar irregularity to the one we have described, 
occurred in the motion of corn-mills, from the yarjing 
quantity of water or resistance. It had early exercised the 
ingenuity of mill^vTights to obtain some means by which its 
injurious effects could be obviated, and the means they 
adopted was attaching a couple of heavy balls to a jointed 
rod. These balls were made to revolve by being connected 
mth the spindle or axis of the mill-runner, and the apparatus 
was called a lift-tenter. The centrifugal force of these balls 
w^hen in motion either raised or lowered a stage in which 
the arbor of the spindle revoked, and brought the stones 
nearer, or removed them farther from, each other, as they 
might require to be adjusted. This most ingenious regulator 
]VIr. Watt applied to regulate the opening and shutting of 
the throttle-valve of the steam-engine. Fig. 4 shows the 
manner in which this is effected, i i are two balls attached 
to two rods H G ; when the balls separate so that the rods 
H G- become more divergent, the arms h r open, and the 
pivots r separating, draw down the collar E, which slides on 
the spindle. AYhen the balls, instead of diverging, approach 
each other, the arms h r also approach each other, and the 
collar E is lifted. Thus, as the balls, by the action of centri- 
fugal force, diverge or contract towards the seat they occupy 
when the engine is at rest, the collar e is raised or lowered 
by means of a lever, n l k, having a fork formed at one end, 
which receives the motion of the sliding collar e, and trans- 
mits it to the lever of the throttle-valve, as shown in the cut. 
A rotatory motion is given to the balls by a strap, gut-line, 
or gearing to the pulley a b (fixed upon the lower part of 
the spindle) from any convenient part of the machinery in 
motion. 

As it is necessary that the boiler be supplied with water 
equal to that evaporated and consumed by the engine in 
the shape of steam, it is usual to employ the power of the 
engine to work pumps for that purpose. In condensing- 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



17 



' engines, the water is supplied to tlie boiler from the con- 
' denser, extracted by the action of the air-pump, as this 
water is considerably warmer than that drawn direct from 
the original source, and is of course a saving of so much 
heat. As this supply of water requires to be merely regu- 
ji lated, a self-acting apparatus is attached to the boiler, as 
■ shown in fig. 15 ; but this arrangement is only applicable to 
low-pressure boilers, as the column of water or head would 
require to be inconveniently high to overcome the great 
pressure of the steam in the latter case. Therefore, forcing 
or feed-pumps are attached to the engine, and an arrange- 
ment made by which the driver can regulate the quantity 
supplied, which he ascertains by means of the gauge-cocks, 
or glass gauge-tube, shown in fig. 20. 

Having now lightly passed over the leading features of 
the ordinary method for applying the elastic force of steam 
to the working of machinery, we may now proceed to a 
description of the various and most approved forms in which 
the steam-engine is constructed, and the various parts we 
have discussed, arranged in the most suitable manner for 
the purposes of the agriculturist. 

The Boulton and Watt condensing beam-engine is doubt- 
less the most perfect machine, and the most economical 
form in which steam power can be applied, especially when 
to it are added some of the most recent improvements for 
working the steam expansively, and in two cylinders ; the 
engine may be considered in this form, almost perfect, 
and I have lately had an opportunity of examining one of 
this description of most excellent design and workmanship, 
at a corn-mill at Wandsworth, in Surrey, belonging to Mr. 
Watney. This engine is working twenty-three hours out of 
every twenty-four, and doing about twenty-five horses' power 
the whole of that time, with seven tons of coal per week ; 
a most excellent duty; it was manufactured by Messrs. 
Wentworth of Wandsworth, and does them infinite credit. 



18 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



On all very large farms, where a large power can be 
constantly employed, I should recommend engines of this 
description, but as these cases must be but very few in 
number, something much cheaper, much more easily managed, 
and much simpler in its action must be sought for. In 
Part I. of this treatise I have given the reasons why I think 
farmers should not go to the expense of erecting such costly 
machinery as is used by regular manufacturers, even sup- 
posing such to be to the manufacturers a little more econo- 
mical in the end. The farmer, as I have before observed, is 
differently placed, inasmuch as his machine is only employed 
for a certain portion of the year, while the manufacturer is 
constantly employed, almost day and night, in producing 
minute portions of profit. The farmer may save more in 
interest upon dead capital sunk in machines, than he would 
in the saving he might get by having them so much more 
expensively constructed. For agriculturists they must be 
made at a low price ; for farmers' profits in future will not 
admit of the smallest amount being sunk unnecessarily in 
the construction of their machines, which must of necessity 
be expensive under any circumstances. 

The high pressure heam-engine. — This is the form" of 
engine oftenest adopted on large farms ; it is constructed in 
much the same manner as the condensing engine before 
described, that is with beam parallel motion, connecting-rod, 
crank, and feed-pump ; and is generally constructed with an 
iron frame supported by columns similar to condensing 
engines, but it has neither condenser nor air-pump. This 
engine is manufactured by all the leading firms, as 
Hansomes', Garrett's, Tuxford, Hornsby, &c. 

Now, however cheaply this engine may be got up, it must 
be expensive on account of the number of parts employed 
in converting the rectilinear motion of the piston-rod into 
the rotatory one of the shaft. It has been, therefore, a 
point much aimed at by the builders of engines to get the 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 



19 



i piston rod to act as directly upon tlie crank as possible, 
and so produce what are called direct-actimg engines ; this 
has been done in the following different plans ; first, by 
working a cross-head attached to the top of the piston-rod 
between guides, and placing a connecting-rod between the 
crank and the head of the piston-rod : an exceedingly simple 
engine has been constructed upon this plan, and it answers 
very well in practice. Its defect, of course, consists in 
the friction of the cross-heads against the guides, and the 
thrust and pull of the piston-rod being so much out of the 
straight line, as it must of necessity be by the throw of the 
crank. This defect gets less apparent as the connecting-rod 
is made longer. A variety of agricultural engines have been 
constructed upon this plan, with long connecting-rods and 
high frames. 

The next method is by having the cylinder set upon a 
point or points in the centre upon which it is allowed to 
oscillate ; in this case the head of the piston-rod is attached 
at once to the crank, and an exceedingly simple engine is 
produced. This ingenious method of getting rid of parallel 
motions, beams, and connecting-rods, was the invention of 
Mr. "Watt, who seems to have left nothing to do by those 
who followed. In some books upon the steam-engine this 
invention is attributed to Mr. "Whittle, and it certainly was 
brought into use by Mr. Maudslay. Doubtless the same 
notion occurred to Mr. "Whittle as had previously occurred 
to Mr. "Watt ; that he invented and made a working model 
of it there is no doubt, for at the Great Exhibition in 
Hyde Park, upon the frame of the Grreat Boulton and "Watt 
j Marine Engines, there was placed by that firm the identical 
model, made by McMurdoc, at Soho, 1763. The cylinder 
case was of wood, and the model very roughly got up ; 
nevertheless, the oscillating engine was perfect ; the action 
j of the slide was arranged in the same manner as it is com- 
! monly worked now, and the engine was in appearance the 



20 



THE STEAil-ENGlXE. 



ordinary oscillating engine of tlie present day. It being my 
duty to report upon agricultural and other machines for the 
Illustrated London News, I prepared a cut of this engine, 
and it will be found in No. 499 of that paper, about a third 
the size of the original. Beside this first idea of AYatt's of 
oscillating the cylinder, were exhibited a pair of oscillating 
cylinder engines by J. Penn, of Greenwich, of extreme 



Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 




CROSSKILLS FIXED EXGIXE. 



beauty, and of the most perfect workmanship that could be 
produced. On comparing the model of 1763, and the mag- 
nificent engines of 1852, one cannot but be struck with the 
fact that, in the model the idea was complete : it requii-ed 



THK STEAM-ENGINE. 



21 



I "but to be carried out as Mr. Penn could do it. An immense 
variety of the oscillating cylinder-engines have been con- 
structed ; sometimes it is placed horizontal with one trunnion, 
at others it is placed overhead and the crank underneath. 
In this manner it is called a pendulous engine. Another 
arrangement, and one I consider well adapted to agricultural 
purposes, has been manufactured by W. Evans, of "Wardour 
Street. In this case the steam is inducted and discharged 
I! through transverse hollow trunnions, placed at the bottom 
i of the cylinder, of a simple and scientific construction, upon 
which the cylinder moves. Doubtless the oscillating engine 
is the simplest form upon which a steam-engine can be 
constructed, and fixed agricultural engines are usually made 
on that plan ; but there is one point upon which some diffi- 
culty exists, that is, the keeping the packing at the trunnions 
always in order ; this requires considerable care and atten- 
tion, which it is difficult to extract from ordinary agricultural 
labourers. Eigs. 5 and 6 represent one of the best forms 
in which this engine is made for agricultural purposes ; it is 
by Mr. Crosskill of Beverley in Yorkshire ; it is simple in 
design, exceedingly strong, cheap in price, and in setting up 
requires only a flag-stone or two wooden sleepers. 

In every respect this is to be recommended as an efficient 
farm-engine ; it occupies but a small space, and is, there- 
fore, well adapted for the colonies. 

Trunk-engines. — The object of adopting the contrivance 
called a trunk, is to get the direct action of the oscillating 
engine without the inconvenience of vibrating the cylinder, 
and this is effected in the following manner : 

In the centre of the piston is placed an iron tube or 
trunk, and in the cylinder cover is an aperture through 
which it passes, being kept steam-tight in the same manner 
as the ordinary piston-rod. One end of this tube is con- 
nected with the piston, and the other end is open. No 
piston-rod is required to this engine, as one end of the 



22 



THE STEAil-EXGINE. 



connecting-rod is fixed to tlie piston itself, and the other 
end to the crank. 

It will be easily understood now, that the deviation of the 
connecting-rod from a line parallel to the sides of the 
cylinder, will be permitted within the trunk or tube which 
works in and out of the cylinder as the piston rises and 
descends ; the trunk, in fact, may be considered as a hollow 
piston-rod of sufficient diameter to allow of the swaying 
the connecting-rod within it equal to the throw of the 
crank. 

Messrs. Penn, of Grreenwich, are the introducers of this 
engine for marine purposes, to which it is specially adapted ; 
and Messrs. Ransomes have adapted it for a small fixed 
engine for agricultural purposes, as well as to their portable 
engine. 

It is certain that the trunk simplifies the action of the 
engine to a great extent, and, but for one defect, seems to 
me to be an almost perfect engine. This defect is the 
constant exposure of a large surface, like the trunk, to the 
external atmosphere to be cooled down at every stroke of 
the engine, for the atmosphere is not only in contact with 
the outside of the trunk each time it is drawn from the 
cylinder, but is always cooling down the inside surface of 
the tube which, at the bottom of the stroke is, of course, 
the whole length of the cylinder. The steam must be badly 
situated here, being only an annular ring cooled down from 
the outside of the cylinder, and the inside of the trunk ; 
but Messrs. Eansomes' have tried these engines, and in 
practice it may be that these causes do not produce such 
appreciable eff'ects as might be anticipated. An excellent 
specimen of this engine was exhibited by them at the 
Great Exhibition, and was employed in driving Mr. 
"Whitworth's beautiful collection of machine tools. It is 
intended for the use of farmers and millers, and is thus 
described by the makers : — -"All the parts are easy of access, 



THE STEAM-EXGINE. 



23 



and afford every facility for adjustment and repairs. It is 
entirely supported by its own cast-iron frame, which is 
strong and neat, and does not require any attachment to 
the walls of the building in which it is placed ; it can be 
either erected on a small brick-work foundation, or be placed 
on two wooden sleepers. It is well adapted for driving 
jBxed thrashing machinery, either on a stage or ground floor, 
as the strap can be easily taken from the large pulley on 
the crank-shaft, to the small one on the drum-spindle of a 
thrashing machine, which may have been previously driven 
by horse-power. The engine has a wrought-iron crank 
shaft and connecting-rod ; the slide valve is brass and on 
the best principle, and not liable to be put out of order, and 
the supply of water to the boiler is very easily regulated ; 
there is a governor of the best construction, and an improved 
valve for stopping the engine without interfering with the 
throttle- valve. 

Rotatory Engines. — It has been the aim of nearly all the 
constructors and improvers of the steam-engine, to construct 
one in which the force of the steam exerts itself continually 
in producing direct motion round an axis, so getting rid of 
all the cumbrous parallel motions, beams, connecting 
rods, &c. Engines acting in this manner are called rotatory. 
An enormous number of patents have at various times been 
taken out for them, but as yet there are not any sufficiently 
perfect in their action as to be available for agricultural 
purposes, nor is the loss of power from the employment of 
cranks and the other members of reciprocating engines 
nearly «o great as to render it necessary for the farmer to 
run any risks by adapting any of the present rotatory 
engines. Mr. Scott EusseU, in his treatise on the steam- 
engine, observes, " that such an elementary machine, if 
constructed, could give forth any more of that power than 
is now rendered effective by the common steam-engine in 
every day use, is a fallacy, arising in ignorance and ending 



24 



PORTABLE STEAM-EXGIXES. 



in disappointment." Eotatory engines have beenbronglit to 
considerable perfection by Mr. Beale, Lord Dundonald, 
Elijah Grallowaj, and many others ; but the one that seems 
most likely to realise the anticipations of its inventors is 
called a disc-engine, and acts in a manner quite distinct from 
the usual plans, attempted much in the manner the upper 
arm of a man works from the shoulder joint. 

Those who are desirous of further information upon this 
subject, will find the disc and many other rotatory engines 
fully described and ably discussed in Mr. Eitchie's work 
called the Farm Engineer. 



CHAPTEE II. 

PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINES. 

The manufacturers of agricultural steam-engines have 
spared neither pains nor expense in endeavouring to produce 
a perfect portable engine. At the Great Exhibition in Hyde 
Park, there was quite an array of them ; nearly every 
engineer of eminence had produced one constructed upon 
the most approved and tried principles, and all were so good, 
though diifering considerably from one another in design, 
that it is a most difficult matter to decide which is actually 
the best, for, although one may have an advantage in some 
particular point, yet upon inquiry it will be generally found 
that it has been obtained at the sacrifice of some other, which 
its maker considered too important to be neglected. "We 
need not, therefore, attempt to make comparisons where all 
are so good, but will give a short description of some of 
tbose which upon trial were found to answer thoroughly 
weU, and received the commendations of the judges whose 
business it was to decide upon their respective merits. 



PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINES. 



25 



Messrs. Garretfs Engine. — This eminent firm always 
make a great display of implements of every description, 
sparing neither pains nor expense to enable them to occupy 
the first place in the continually renewed struggles for pre- 
eminence as agricultural machinists ; and it but rarely 
happens that they are not the recipients of some of the 
prizes awarded for inventions, improvements, cheapness, or 
superior workmanship. Their portable engine, as may be 
expected, is one of the best constructed, having every modi- 
fication or addition applied immediately its advantage w'as 
apparent. Pigs. 7, 8, and 9 represent the fore and after end 
and side elevations of this engine. 

It is fitted with governor, hair-belt jacket, steam and 
water gauges, and other necessary appendages, mounted on 
four strong carriage-wheels, with shafts, and may be easily 
transported from place to place by two horses. 

Reference to Plates. 

AAA An improved tubular boiler with oval fire grate. 

B B Fire-box of boiler, 

C c Cylinder of engine. 

D Improved guide to piston-rod, capable of being adjusted. 

E Eccentric rod for working the slide. 

P Connecting rod. 

G The governor, for regulating the speed. 

H H H The fly-wheel. 

Ill Cold water tank, to which is attached the pump for supplying 
the boiler, 

www Travelling wheels. 

s s s Shafts for two horses abreast. 

V The safety-valve, with Salter's improved balance. 

Since these cuts w^ere prepared, this engine has been 
considerably lightened, and now only one pair of shafts is 
used instead of the arrangement shown in the cuts. 



VOL. II. 



G 




galrett's portable steam-exgine. 



PORTABLE STEAM-EKGINES. 



27 



Fig. 8. — Aftei;-eud elevation. 




GARKETt'S portable STEA5I-ENG1NE. 

c 2 



POETABLE STEA:,I-EXGINES. 



jj PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINES. 29 

J • Messrs. Sornshfs Engine. — This firm lias Lrouglit tlie 

j agricultural portable engine to tlie highest point of perfection 
in workmanship, and in economy of fuel in producing steam. 

i The chief peculiarity in this engine is the placing the 
cylinder and pipes connected therewith inside the boiler, or 
steam chamber, so effectually protecting them from the 

' atmosphere at all times. This improvement no doubt effects 
an immense saving of fuel, as it does away with all condensa- 

' tion in the cylinder ; and the less fuel is consumed, the less 
wear and tear there will be in the tubes and fire-box, which 
are the most hard-wearing parts. 

This engine is exceedingly neat and compact in appearance. 
The cylinder (as we have before remarked) is placed in the 
steam chamber over the furnace, the piston-rod working 
through a stuffing-box in the fore-side of it; and on the 
outer end of the piston-rod is a short cross head which works 
in two guides, which are neatly supported at the outer end 
by a ring, the lower part of which is screwed to the top of 
the barrel of the boiler. 

The connecting-rod is attached to the head of the piston- 
rod and cross-head, and, as the piston-rod passes in and 
out of the cylinder, the connecting-rod has room to play in 
the ring in a manner similar to what it would in a trunk- 
engine. 

The crank-shaft is supported on two plummer blocks one 
on each side of the boiler, a convenient distance aft of the 
chimney or funnel. The plummer blocks are placed on 
carriages formed of three short fluted Doric columns, the 
abacus of each being the lower portion of the plummer 
block : the whole is placed upon a step projecting from the 
boiler. It is very handsome in appearance, and quite secure 
and steady when working. 

Above the guides for the piston-rod cross-head is placed 
an exceedingly well contrived governor, with an additional 
security for the heavy balls when the engine is travelling — 



30 



rOETABLE STEA]M-E>'GIXES. 



two semisplierical cups being placed so as to receive the 
balls and keep them at rest, as their weight is apt to injure 
their bearings by jolting on rough roads. 

The engiae is fitted with metallic piston, steam-cocks, 
gauge-cocks, safetj-valves, and all other requisites for 
ensuring correct working and safety. 

Prizes have been awarded to the Messrs. Hornsby at the 
Exeter and York meetings of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, 
and the great Prize Medal at the Exhibition of all Js'ations, 
as well as by a mimber of local societies. At the meeting 
of the Eoyal Agricultural Society at York, the judges say, 
" they awarded the prize to this engiae because it was 
stronger, steadier, better fitted, got up the steam and 
worked with less fuel than any other engiae exhibited. It 
worked in every way as the exhibitor described it. It had 
a good boiler, to generate the steam, plenty of cylinder 
room to give it power, sufiicient strength in all its parts to 
keep it steady, and an excellent governor to regulate its 
motion." 

A more flattering report never was made nor better 
deserved. This engine is the result of repeated improve- 
ments and careful study of the peculiarities of engines 
required for agricultural purposes. Though highly scientific 
in its arrangement, it is nevertheless exceedingly simple ; 
and the charge I hear repeated^ made against it, that it is 
difficult and expensive to repair (in consequence of the 
cylinder, &c., being enclosed), I am assured by Mr. Hornsby 
is utterly without reason : they undertake to take to pieces 
and reconstruct their engine in the same time that any 
other can be so treated. 'Nor do I see any dif&culties arise 
from the situation of the cylinder, there being a manhole 
directly over it. 

At the trial of steam-engines which took place under the 
direction of the executive committee at the Great Exhibi- 
tion, the Messrs. Hornsby's engine, competing with others 



PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINES. 



31 



1 manufactured by various makers from all parts of England, 
I beat tbem all in amount of duty, the consumption of fuel 
I being only 6flb. of coal per horse power per hour ; or 

3 cwt. 2 qrs. 13 lb. of coal per day for a six-horse engine, 
j At another trial (the power in both cases being proved 
I with a dynamometer), at the North Lincolnshire Agricultural 

Society's meeting, held at Caistor, July, 1851, the first prize 

of 201. was awarded, the result being reported thus : — 
I Their engine was of seven-horse nominal power, and 
' consumed 361b. of coal, on getting up the steam 371b. per 

hour, being 5-281b. per hour per horse, and 3 cwt. 1 qr. 61b. 

per day of ten hours, when working up to their nominal 

power the whole time. 

At another trial at the Yorkshire Agricultural Meeting, 

held at Bridlington, August, 1851, the prize was again 

awarded to this engine, the results being thus with four 

engines, from the hands of first-rate makers, Messrs. 

Hornsby's being 'No. 1 : — 



No. of 
engine. 


Nominal 
horse 
power. 


Coals used 
in 

getting-np 
the steam. 


lb. of coal 

burnt 
per hour. 


lb. of coals 
burnt per 

horse-power 
per hour. 


Coals used per day 
of 10 hours, when 
working up to 
their nominal 
horse-powers. 






lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


cwt. 


qrs. lb. 


1 


7 


40 


5U 


7.35 


4 


2 11 


2 


7 


41 


591 


8.50 


5 


1 7 


3 


6 


48 


64i 


10.70 


5 


2 26-1 


4 


6 


60| 


96| 


16.12 


8 


2 15i 



In this trial an inferior coal was used, which accounts for 
the increased consumption in doing the same amount of work. 

The engines of this firm have now stood the test of years, 
and I most confidently recommend them as being, if not 
superior, at least equal to anything of the kind manufactured 
by any one. 

JPortable ^team-'Engine, constructed by Messrs. Barrett, 
Exall, and Andrewes, of the Katesgrove Iron- works, Eeading. 



32 



POETABLE STE A:\I-EyGiyES. 



!Figs. 10, 11, and 12, represent tlie side and end elevation 
of this ODgine, whieli is in every respect a most efficient 
one. Messrs. Barrett's ample stock of machine tools, <S:c., 
enable tliem to turn out everything of first-rate workman- 



Fig. 10. — Side eleration. 




ship, of which their portable steam-engine is a good example. 
It is constructed in the ordinary manner, with tubular 
boiler, &c., and the engravings will make it much more 
clearly understood than any wiitten description. There is 
one particular point, however, that should be specially 
observed, and that is, the admirable manner in which the 
engine is arranged and secured to the boiler. Fig. 12 will 
show this more clearly. It consists in the engine being 
complete on a metal frame, independently of its attachment 



PORTABLE STEA^I-EXGIXES. 



33 



to the boiler, Tvhieli renders its remoTal easy, at anj time 
it may be necessary, without affecting the boiler. 

The average consumption (but of course varying with the 




BABBETT, EXALL, AXD ANDREWES'S POETABLE STEAJI-ENGIXE. 



quality of the coal, coke, wood, &c., employed) is found to 
be about 71b. per horse-povrer per hour. The simple 
arrangement of the parts, and all being exposed to the 
eye, renders this engine well adapted for agricultural 
purposes — as a smart agricultural labourer will, with a 
week's instruction, be better qualified to drive it than 

c 3 



34 POETABLE STEAaI-EXGIXES. 

where the engine is out of sight or more complicated in 
construction. 

Fig. 12.— Cross section. 




CLAYTON, SHUTTLEWOBTH, AND CO.'S ENGINES. 

— These makers are justly celebrated for the manufacture of 
portable engines ; they are exceedingly simple, of excellent 
workmanship, moderate in cost, and consume a very small 
quantity of fuel ; they are well adapted for all the pui^poses 
for which steam is used as motive power — as thrashing, 
grinding, sawing, pumping, or any other purpose. 'With 
contractors for works of all kinds they are great favourites. 

They are manufactiu'ed of various powers, from three horses 
to ten ; in the latter case they are fitted with double cylin- 
ders ; they are fitted up and equal in workmanship the best 
locomotives ; the engine is well arranged and has an improved 
governor (which regulates the steam to the greatest nicety), 
starting-lever, safety-valves (which are acted upon by Salter's 
spring balance), water and gauge cocks, feed-pump and 
steam-whistle, all placed within reach of the driver, without 
his moving from his position in front of the boiler. 

The annexed tabular statement will show the results of 
a trial with eight portable engines, carried out by the judges' 
direction at the Eoyal Agricultui^al Society's meeting, held 



PORTABLE STEAM-EXGIXES. 35 



at Exeter, 1850, Messrs. Clayton & Sliuttlewortli's engine 
being jN'o. 1. 



No. of 
engine. 


Time 
getting-up 
steam. 


Nominal 
liors6"P^'r. 


Coals used 
in getting-up 
steam. 


Coals burnt 
per liour. 


Coals burnt 
per ho.-pow. 
per hour. 




minntes. 




lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


1 


43 


7 


36^ 


54^ 


7a 


2 


40 


4 


524 


4l| 


9| 


3 


105 


4 


60 


112 


28 


4 


85 


6 


64 


83 


13| 


5 


39 


9 


42 


68 




6 


81 


7 


49i 


74 




7 


90 


6 


44 


66h 


11 


8 


34 


6 


34 


62' 


Hi 



The small three-horse engine, manufactured by this firm, 
is admirably adapted for small occupiers, and will thrash 
out, clean and satisfactorily, 20 quarters of wheat per 
day of ten hours (the crop being of a fair average yield) ; 
one horse is sufficient to remove it from place to place when 
on turnpike roads, and, from its extreme lightness, it may 
be taken over bad roads and into situations that would not 
be accessible to engines of greater weight. The consumption 
of fuel for this engine is 3 cwt. for a day of ten hours ; 
and it will require to be supplied with 270 gals, of water. 
Thei seven-horse engine weighs 50 cwt., and consumes, in a 
day of ten hours, 5 cwt. of coals and 450 gals, of water, 
and will thrash 35 quarters of mown wheat per day. 

The nine-horse power engine weighs 75 cwt., and con- 
sumes 9 cwt. of coals, and 800 gals, of water in the day of 
ten hours. 

The last engine is only adapted for farms of the largest 
description, 

I have just seen one of the engines of this firm employed 
in driving some heavy iron rollers for grinding clay (as 
heavy a duty as could be laid upon an engine), at the 
Pottery "Works of E. Eetts, Esq., on his estate, Preston 



36 



POETABLE STEA^I-EXGIXES, 



Hall, Kent. The driver of the engine gave me a most 
satisfactory account of it, and seemed well pleased with it in 
every respect. 

3Iessrs. Tu:)r^orcVs 'Portable Steam-Engines. — These are 
considered to be good and effective engines : they are 
differently constructed to the generality of engines of this 
description, the ordinary plan being to place the cylinders 
and engine-work on the top, or nearly so, of the boiler, 
horizontally, and setting the main shaft across. In ^Messrs. 
Tuxford's engine the cylinders are placed in the smoke-box : 
in this they are thoroughly housed up, and being kept always 
hot by the draft of hot air through the tubes and by the escape 
of the steam, a great economy of fuel should take place, as 
the steam cylinders are as well off in this case as in 3Iessrs. 
Homsby's, with the advantage of being accessible at all times 
by merely opening the moveable plate which forms the back 
of the smoke-box. The cylinders are set in an upright 
position, sometimes fixed, and at others they are made to 
oscillate ; there are also peculiarities in the arrangement of 
the tubes. The fuel consumed is about 4 cwt. per day. 

Messrs. Bansomes' FortoMe St earn- Engine is equal in 
workmanship and effectiveness to any made in England, the 
object of this firm beiug to make an engine that shall do the 
work of agricidturists in a satisfactory manner thi'ou*h a 
long series of years, instead of making an engine especially 
with a view to competition at an agricultural show, the 
results of which must not always be taken as the sole guide 
in the choice of an engine. The cylinder and the machinery 
are placed on the top of the boiler ; the engine is on the 
principle we have before alluded to as the trunk engine, the 
simplest form of engine that can be made ; it is fitted with 
governor, regulator valve, and aii eEBcient feed-pump. The 
crank-shaft and connecting-rod are of wrought-ii'on, and the 
slide-valve is of brass, and of the most improved construction. 
The steam and escape pipes are of copper, and consequently 



PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINES. 



37 



not liable to injure the slide-valye and metallic packing of 
the piston by any scales caused by corrosion of the metal 
coming oif the pipes and being carried by the steam into 
the working parts of the engines, as is frequently the case 
in common engines fitted with wrought-iron gas tubes 
(instead of copper) for steam-pipes. The boiler is made on 
the same principle as the locomotive boilers, and will work 
up to 80 lb. pressure on the square inch, should there be any 
necessity for it. A wrought-iron ash-pan is placed under 
the fire-box containing water ; all hot cinders are immediately 
extinguished as soon as they fall, thus ensuring the greatest 
possible safety in working. 

Between the engine frame and the axles of the wheels 
are interposed springs for preserving the machinery from 
injurious shocks while passing over rough roads. The five- 
horse engine will thrash, with ease, 40 quarters of wheat (of 
average yield) per day. 

In the Eeport of the Eoyal Agricultural Society's meeting 
at Bristol, 1842, I find that Messrs. Eansomes exhibited a 
portable disc-engine (tried at Liverpool), but then set upon 
a carriage with four, instead of two wheels, and having a 
platform of sufficient dimensions for the conveyance of a 
thrashing machine from farm to farm. A further alteration 
had also been effected by applying the power of the engine 
to give locomotion to the carriage instead of using horses ; 
the engine travelled along a road at the rate of from four to 
six miles per hour, and was guided and manoeuvred so as 
to fix it in any particular spot with much ease ; it turned 
also in a very small compass ; the engine proved itself 
sufficiently powerful to drive, at full speed, a three-horse 
thrashing machine. The judges awarded a prize of 30/., but 
considered it questionable whether the substitution of steam 
for horses, as the force employed to move portable agricul- 
tural engines from place to place, would be found either 
more convenient or economical; they, however, highly 



38 



STEAir-BOILEES. 



commended tlie simplicity and effectiveness of tlie machinery 
applied hj Messrs. Eansomes to accomplish the purpose. 
This was in every way a most interesting experiment ; but, 
as it is not now in use, I presume the makers did not find 
the disc-engine adapted to their purpose. 



CHAPTEE III. 



STEAM-BOILEES. 

That those who employ or are about to employ steam- 
engines should possess some knowledge of the boilers for the 
generation of steam to supply these engines, is of the first 
importance. Farmers will readily understand this when 
they consider that it is the boilers that will more resemble 
the horse (whose power, &c. they are about to dispense 
with) than the engine, for it is this boiler that will consume 
the coal instead of oats, and whose goodness or badness will 
render the application of steam power more economical or 
the reverse ; it is the boiler that will require the more 
special care of its superintendent, and which will soonest 
show the efiects of bad treatment ; and it is this same boiler 
that constitutes all the danger of using steam power, for if 
an improper one, or a bad one, its owner may be informed of 
that fact by some terrible explosion. The importance, then, 
of all those persons using steam, acquiring as much kuow- 
ledge as they can of the best forms, construction, and most 
judicious management of steam-boilers, will not for a moment 
be disputed ; we will therefore devote as much space as the 
limited size of this book will permit, to point out what are 
the chief points to be attended to in the choice and manage- 
ment of this important machine, and for further information 
the reader is advised to seek it in Mr. Armstrong's interesting 



STEAM-BOILERS. 



39 



and valuable little work (one of this series), where he will 
find the whole matter treated of at considerable length, 
but in so simple and clear a manner that any workman of 
ordinary intelligence may understand it. 

Steam-boilers, like the engines, are made of an infinite 
variety of shapes, but such as are adapted for the generation 
of steam for agricultural engines may be divided into the 
following classes : — 

Low-pressure waggon-boilers, Cornish boilers, boilers 
with large tubes or fines, and fire-box boilers. 



Fig. 13. 




SECTION OF WAGGOy-BOILEE. 



Fig. 15 is the vertical section of a waggon-boiler, showing 
the arrangements for heating and supplying water, with the 
apparatus called the safety-valve for preventing explosions. 
Pig. 14 is the transverse section of a boiler of the same kind. 
This description of boiler is the one most commonly used in 
factories and mills, where the motive power is a condensing 
engme. A boiler of this kind 20 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 
6 feet 8 inches deep, will supply steam to an engine of 



40 



STEA:iI-BOILERS. 



20-liorse power, witli a rerj moderate consumption of fuel. 
They are often made of the same depth and width, but 
longer or shorter, and 
each foot is considered 
as equal to 1-horse 
power. This description 
of boiler is always set 
with what is called a 
wheel-draft, that is, the 
current of flame and 
smoke after passing un- 
der the boiler bottom is 
made to rise up at the 
back, whence, returning 
along one side by a 
brick flue to the front, 
it crosses the front end, 
and then passes along 
the other side to the 
back, where it s^oes into 





the main flue, which conducts it to the chinmey. The 
upper part of the boiler is a semi-cylinder. The lower part 



STEA:iI-BOILEIlS. 



41 



Fig. 15. 



is made with concave sides outwards, 5 or 6 inches on each 
side, for the purpose of obtaining greater strength for resist- 
ing internal pressure. The bottom is arched upwards 10 
inches, or 2 inches to each foot of the width 
of the boiler; to equalise the action of 
the radiated heat from the mass of fuel 
bearing on the grate. 

Reference to Fig. 15. 
A tlie grate for supplying the fuel, from the 
combustion of which the steam is generated. 
& 6 the flue which surrotmds the boiler. 
e e are the gauge-cocks. 
s the steam-pipe for supplying the cylinder 
with steam from the boiler. 

g is the safety-Talre, the pres- 
sure being regulated by the 
weight. 




42 



STEA^I-BOILEHS. 



This description of boiler is well adapted for agricultural 
purposes, wheu low-pressure steam is used, as all descriptions 
of fuel may be burnt under it. 

Fined Boilers are sucb as bare one or more flues or tubes 
tbrougb them. In these the furnace is placed within the 
boiler, in the tube, through which the flame passes at once 
to the chimney shaft, if only one tube is used ; but a variety 
of plans are in use for returning the flame through a number 
of passages, for the purpose of getting a greater heating 
surface, and extracting a larger amount of caloric from the 
fuel ; but for agricultural purposes a cii'cular boiler with one 
tube through is the one most generally used and considered 
best adapted for such purposes. 

Fire-l)ox Boilers. — This description of boiler is the one 
applied to various kinds of portable engines now comiug 
into such general use by agriculturists in every quarter. 
The inventor of it was the celebrated George Stephenson, 
and it was first applied to the Eocket Locomotive Engine on 
the Manchester and Liverpool Eailway. It at once super- 
seded all the other descriptions of locomotive boilers then in 
use. It was examined and its efiects witnessed by hundreds 
of engineers at the opening of the railway, and pronounced 
by all to be the most important improvement that had been 
made, and thirty years of trial has proved the fact, for it has 
not had a single competitor deserving the name ; and the 
more closely the principles involved in tliat great invention 
have been adhered to since their great discoverer first made 
them known, the more perfect has been the locomotive for 
efficiency and economy combined. 

The great principle of this boiler is quick combustion 
with short and direct draft, the reverse of the Cornish 
system of slow combustion and long flues. 

The fire-box tubular boilers may be divided into three 
divisions. Eirst, the fire-box in which the combustion of the 
fuel takes place; secondly, the barrel or tube boiler, in 



STEAM-BOILEES. 



43 



wliicli are placed the tubes leading the heated air from tlie 
fire-box ; and thirdly, the smoke or flue box, where the 
tubes end, and the steam is discharged from the cylinders 
into the funnel or chimney above, and an intense draft 
thereby caused through the tubes. Mr. Armstrong considers 
that increasing the number of these tubes, and the diameter 
of the boiler, is much preferable to lengthening the tubes 
and boiler, as I observe some manufacturers of portable farm 
engines are now doing in imitation of the long boiler railway 
locomotive. If this is done to the extent I have heard it 
proposed lately by an eminent manufacturer, his patrons will, 
I am sure, find them to be anything but portable engines. 

AVlmtever description of boiler is used by the agriculturist 
should be of as simple a form as possible, one that can 
be constructed in a sound and perfect manner, that can be 
kept clean easily, will cost as little money as possible, and 
that he may rely upon being perfectly safe from accidents. 

Por simplicity, it happens that the best boilers are the 
most so ; for those extraordinary forms of boilers for 
which patents are so continually being taken out, the farmer 
should have nothing to do with. The object of these is 
usually to extract a greater amount of caloric from the fuel. 
But hear what Mr. Armstrong says of tliem : " One of the 
prevalent sources of error to scientific not less than to 
practical men, is the apparent paradoxical fact that whatever 
length a boiler is made, the heated air or smoke which escapes 
is still capable of boiling water in a separate vessel placed in 
the flue leading to the chimney. This naturally induces a 
suspicion, that in our ordinary methods of setting boilers 
we only obtain a small portion of the heat derivable from 
the fuel." 

Hence our patent offices are filled with the thousand-and- 
one schemes, with their various and endless winding and 
zigzag flues, of the numerous inventors of boilers, many of 
whom appear to me to have quite a mania for running after 



44 



STEAM-BOILHrvS, 



and nsing up tlie whole of the heat, with a determination 
far exceeding that of the perpetual motion seekers, and 
with quite as little chance of success. The fact stated, 
however, is no way surprising : although steam may thus be 
raised in a close ressel; even to a much greater pressure and 
temperatme than that in a boiler, from which the waste heat 
has escaped, it certainly must be allowed that steam so 
obtained, if returned into the boiler at a workable pressure, 
is so much clear gain. My argument, however, only is, that 
it is not mucli, and calculated commercially it is worth less 
than nothing, that is, taking time into account : for, according 
to what is elsewhere stated, we find the steam obtainable in 
that way to be produced at so slow a rate, that its value is 
less than a ver}> small per-centage on the capital employed 
to obtain it. 

GaUoicays Fatent DovMe Furnace Tulular Boiler. — 
This is a recent improvement in the construction of steam- 
boiLers, and has given the greatest satisfaction. They are a 
combination of tubular and flue construction : it is the 
strongest form of boiler, for its dimensions, that has been 
brought into use, and is the most economic, for its weight, 
as a generator of steam. Figs. 16, 17, and 18 represent 
longitudinal and transverse sections of this boiler, showing 
Fig. 16. the mode in which the main flue 

is supported and strengthened by 
a series of short vertical tubes, 
which are made slightly conical, 
or about two inches wider at the 
top than the bottom, and amongst 
which the flame is allowed to play 
in its passage through the flue ; 
the tubes being plazed zigzag, 
which gives great facility for this 
purpose. This arrangement of 
short water-tubes, to cause them to act as stays of the 




STEA^^I-BOILEES. 



45 



strongest possible form, and in tlie best position for resisting 
any collapse of the &e-flue, is the valuable featm-e in 
Messrs. Gralloways' invention as regards safety. 

In respect to the absorption of heat from the flames, the 



Fig. 17, 




Fig. IS. 




disposition of these tubes is also remarkably favourable ; for, 
avoiding the difficulty of causing the flame to make its way 
through a crowded box full of comparatively small tubes, on 
the one hand, the tendency of the flame to divide itself into 
two currents, which a single row of tubes sheltering each 
would promote, is also prevented ; on the other, this 
arrangement also assists in causing the flame to wrap and 
envelope the tubes so as to render a greater proportion of 
their surface eftective. Hence tliis Idnd of boiler is greatly 
distinguished for its great economy with flaming fuel, which 



46 



STEA^-BOILERS. 



is an important point, as that is tlie most likelv to be used 
in lieating boilers for agricultural purposes ; for it should be 
borne in mind that different characteristics are required in a 
boiler for a non-flaming fuel. The boilers fitted to the 
agricultural portable engines, containing a number of small 
tubes, are certainlj not so TreU adapted for flaming as non- 
flaming fuel, for it is a well known fact that the flame will 
not enter far into narrow tubes. iMr. Armstrong states 
that Mr. Greorge Stephenson, the inventor of tliis description 
of boiler, expressed to him his opinion that the tubular 
locomotive boiler, so far as the small tubes ai'e concerned, 
should be considered merely as an apparatus for lieating icith 
liot ah\ and not at all adapted for the use of Newcastle coal ; 
the only object to be obtamed in passing the products of 
combustion through an immense number of small tubes, 
was (as ]Mr. Stephenson himself expressed it) to drain out 
the last dregs of the caloric after the great bulk of the steam 
is obtained from the action of the flame in the fire-box, on 
which his chief reliance was placed. 

This important point is worthy of the attentive considera- 
tion of the constructors of the farmers' portable engines, as 
the great expense of these engines is the renewal of the 
tubes and keeping them in repan. 

Mr. Galloway's improved boilers may be seen at work 
at the Gutta Percha "Works in the City-road, where they 
have been found to answer most satisfactorily; they are 
excellent smoke-consumers, if the two furnaces are fired 
alternatel}', and a certain time allowed between each 
filing, proportioned to the quantity of coal laid on, as 
the fire from one furnace consumes the smoke of the other, 
■without the necessity of admitting air through any other 
than the ordinary openings between the bars. 

The construction of the boiler, and the necessary strength 
it should have given to it, must be left to the maker, but it 
would always be well if the farmer requii-ed a written 



STEAM-BOILEPcS. 



47 



guarantee when lie piircliased it tliat it has been proved to 
a certain pressure without showing symptoms of any weak- 
ness ; but the fact of its having been thus tested must not 
induce those who use it to neglect anv precaution for safely 
working it, for the tensile strain that good wrought-iron is- 
capable of undergoing without rupture is so enormous that 
it will rarely give way to pressure fairly applied, as it is in 
the usual manner of testing, yet sometimes they have 
exploded the first time they have been used after having' 
been so tested. 

It is therefore necessary to consider the circumstances- 
imder which boilers usually explode, with a view to giving 
the agriculturist some information as to how he may best 
avoid similar catastrophes. 

There are only two ways in which a boiler can be caused 
to explode, or, as it is commonly called, burst. One is by 
gradually increasing the pressure of the steam in the ordi- 
nary manner : it having no means of egress from the boiler- 
it gradually increases until the plates and rivets are na 
longer able to bear it ; a ruptiu-e of the weakest part must 
of coiu-se then take place. The other is when, from any 
cause, so sudden an increase of pressure takes place that 
the ordinary means provided for its liberation (as the safety- 
valves, &c.) are unable to act in a sufficiently rapid manner 
to prevent the strain the boiler is required (though only for 
a moment) to bear : it is to this last cause that most 
explosions are due, and the greatest care must be taken to 
prevent the cu'CLimstances arising which produce such 
terrible disasters. ]Mr, Armstrong, in the little book I have 
before aUuded to, gives a variety of illustrations of boiler 
explosions imder these and other ch'cumstances, and a 
perusal of them, with his remarks thereon, would give a 
better insight into the nature of such accidents than can be 
acquired in any other way I know of. 

The ordinary means adopted to relieve the boiler cf 



48 



STEAM-BOILERS. 



undue pressure is the safetY-Talve ; this is constructed in a 
Yariety of ways," but the one most in use for high-pressure 
agricultural engines is shown in fig. 19, caUed the spring 
safety-valve. 

The conical valve is represented in its seat ; its spindle s 
being pressed down at a by the lever e a c : c is a fixed 

Fig. 19. 





SAFETT-TALVE. 

O 

pivot, on which the lever plays ; the pressure 
on the spindle of the valve at a is produced by 
a nut at e, which presses that end of the lever 
downwards ; the nut works upon a screw, whicli 
screw is attached to a spring-balance l, the 
lower end of which is firmly attached to a 
fixed point p; the nut b may be turned so 
as to submit the valve to any pressui-e 
within the action of the spring-balance. 
As the nut is tm-ned, the spring becomes 
more and more compressed. An index 
and scale are attached to the balance, 
the scale being so divided as to show the 
number of pounds per square inch by 
which the valve is pressed upon its seat. 

There is nothing in the principle of this 
valve essentially diff'erent from the common 
safety-valve, loaded with a weight usually 
apphed to low pressui-e boilers ; but the 
quantity of weight in this case that would 
have to be raised would be inconvenient. 



WATER-POWEH. 



49 



As shortness of water is a common source of accidents, 
an apparatus called ttie water-gauge is used. Eig. 20 
represents the glass water-gauge ; it is composed of a glass 
tube with a stop-cock at each end, which communicates 
with the boiler, the upper one admitting steam and the 
lower one water; and as the pressure in the tube is the 
same as in the boiler, the level of the water in the tube will 
be the same as in the boiler. In tubular boilers, more 
especially, the gauge requires the constant watching of the 
fireman. 



CHAPTEia lY. 

WATER-POWER. 

Or all motive powers the one obtained from a fall of water 
is the best suited and cheapest for the agriculturist, and if 
it can possibly be obtained is well worth considerable 
trouble and first outlay. It is quite true that in this 
country great care has been taken of every little fall in 
rivers and streams, and numberless mills have been erected 
upon them ; in fact, too many, for in times past (when land 
was worth less and a fall of water more) weirs were erected 
on streams in such a manner as to bay back the water upon 
the lands of the upper level to such an extent as to much 
injure their fertility ; and in the present day there may be 
found very extensive districts of flat vaUeys kept in an 
unwholesome and swampy state merely to maintain the fall 
at some trumpery little miU ; and it is not only the land 
immediately abutting upon the upper level of these miH 
waters, but if the valleys are wide and flat no fall is to be 
got for neighbouring proprietors to drain their lands, and thus 
the whole country for miles round is injured. I know many 

VOL. II. Ji 



50 



WATER-POWEE. 



great flat yallej^s in this state, and as the efficient drainage 
of land is now considered as necessary as putting dressings 
on it, some alteration in the law should take place to enable 
proprietors to cut drains at a low level, and by the mills, 
independent of their weirs. The mill-owners would object 
to this, as they would assert that the draiuage of the land 
was part of their rights, and that they had a vested interest 
in keeping the valley a swamp. It was so in "Walter Blyth's 
day, 1650, and seems likely to remain so. 

If a low drainage level could be got to carry off subter- 
ranean water, only alloT\'ing the flood waters to go by their 
natural channels, water-miUs might be erected in many 
situations where they cannot be now, and the drainage- 
water of the land made available as a motive power for the 
homestead. This has been done in several cases, and with 
capital results. In jMr. Williams's pamphlet on land- 
drainage and irrigation is a most interesting account 
of a water motive power procured from land drainage, at 
Teddesley Hay, an estate, belonging to Lord Hatherton, in 
Staffordshire, from which we quote the following parti- 
culars : — " The extent of land which did not require di'aining 
was comparatively small, and the whole, which consisted 
generally of light soil, rather inclined to peat ; the subsoil 
being chiefly clay, has since been subjected to a regular 
course of thorough draining, and the water collected into 
two main channels, by which it is first conveyed to an 
extensive reservoir, which has been constructed for its 
reception, and from which the water flows underground for 
a distance of nearly half a mile, in a culvert 15 inches in 
diameter, to the farm buildings, where it is discharged upon 
an overshot wheel, and thus furnishes mill power for the 
various purposes connected with the estate. 

" The wheel originally used was constructed of timber, 
and was 30 feet in diameter ; from the want of sufficient 
natural fall in the surface of the land, between the reservoir 



WATEE-POWEPt. 



51 



and the farm, no little ingenuity and contrivance were 
required in the arrangement of the details for using the 
water in the most efficient manner, and for afterwards 
getting rid of it. Much talent has been displayed in over- 
coming these difficulties, which has been done in a way 
which proves how completely this system of converting the 
water obtained from the drainage of the land, to the 
purpose of motive power, is applicable to the great majority 
of estates of any magnitude in the kingdom. 

" The original timber mill-wheel has recently been re- 
placed by one built of wrought-iron, of 38 feet in diameter, 
which is a model of lightness, combined with strength. 
This wheel is let into a chase cut into the red sand-stone 
rock, which here underlies the surface to the depth of its 
entire height of 38 feet, by which means the upper part of 
the wheel is brought below the level of the bottom of the 
reservoir, and a sufficient fall to the water, in its course to 
the mill, is secured. Having performed its work, the tail 
water is discharged from the bottom of the wheel, by a head- 
way, which is driven through the rock, for a distance of some 
500 yards, where it is discharged into a lower level of the 
estate, and made available for the purposes of irrigation to 
a large extent of upland water meadows. In the recent 
alterations, iron has been substituted for wood throughout 
the whole machinery. The extension of the radius of the 
wheel, would alone have enabled the mill to do more work 
with the same supply of water ; but additional water has 
also been obtained, and the power of the water-wheel is 
now equal to twelve horses. A comparatively small 
portion of the water which is now derived from the drains 
is required for the purposes of the mill, but being soft, it is 
all- used for the purpose of irrigation. 

" The water-wheel works a thrashing-machine, cuts hay and 
straw, and kibbles oats and barley for a stock consisting of 
about 250 horses and cattle, grinds wheat and malt, and 

D 2 



5^ 



WATEE-POWER. 



drives circular saws, by whicli fhe saving of all the smaller 
scantlings for the use of the estate is executed." 

Although advocating the setting up of water-wheels, there 
are certain drawbacks that must not be lost sight of, such as 
the great cost of constructing the works for storing the 
water for supplying the wheel, and for carrying it clear of 
the mill-tail when done with, as well as its affecting the 
position of the steading, which should certainly not be placed 
in an unhealthy place for the sake of the water-wheel ; but 
running water is in no way unhealthy, and if the ground 
about the steading be properly drained into the mill-tail, 
there is no fear of injury accruing from such source : 
nevertheless, it is often the case that icater power is paid too 
dearly for. 

Water-wheels are of three kinds, and severally called over- 
shot, breast, undershot, and horizontal wheels, or turbines. 

The overshot wheel is the most powerful form of wheel, as 
in this case the whole fall of the water, being something 
greater than the diameter of the wheel, is employed in 
producing the power which in some cases, where the 
machinery is of superior description, is as much as 75 per 
cent, of the actual fall of the water. 

The overshot is best adapted for small streams of con- 
siderable fall ; and the breast- wheel for large streams with a 
small fall ; while the undershot, or sweepshot, as it is often 
called by millwrights, is chiefly used as a flood wheel, or for 
obtaining motive power from the ebb and flow of the tide. 
Tor a description of the manner of constructing water- 
wheels, tiu-bines, &c., see IMr. Glyn's work, in this series, 
upon mill-work. 

Water-wheels are now generally constructed of iron, and 
it is by far the best material ; in some cases a ring of cogs 
is placed upon the shrouding of the wheel, and thus the 
speed is got up at once without the intervention of inter- 
jnediate gear. 



WATER-POWEU. 



53 



The water is supplied to tlie wheel from a trough or shoot, 
the bottom surface of which should be about 0 4 of a foot 
from the crown of the wheel, to allow of the water obtaining 
a little greater velocity than the outer edge of the wheel. 
On some wheels the water is admitted a little below the 
crown ; the wheel is made in this case of a greater diameter 
than the depth of the fall. This plan is preferred by 
many old millwrights, and they assert that, in practice, it 
has advantages over the other plan : it is called by them 
bastard overshot. The width of the trough should be some- 
thing less than the wheel, to prevent waste, and allow for 
the escape of the air from out of the buckets. 

The gate, or shuttle, should be neatly constructed, and 
work truly and easily, which it very seldom will be found to 
do unless some extra pains be taken in fitting it. A winch 
inside the mill (working a shaft upon which are two pinions, 
gearing into two racks attached to the gate) is the general 
method employed to supply the water to the wheel. 

All the works erected or made in connection with 
water-wheels should be done with great care, and be very 
accurately set out, to prevent leakage and waste ; all the 
brickwork should be done with weR-burnt bricks, set in good 
Koman cement, and efficient walling be placed at the 
junction with the banks that form the pound or head and the 
walls of the mill, — for unless these points be well attended 
to, the water will find its way to the back of the works, and 
in a short time make passages through to the mill-tail : when 
this is the case, a large outlay will soon have to be made 
for repairs. 

In all cases, efficient hatches must be constructed for 
drawing off the head of water. Eor a description of the 
manner of constructing hatches, see Part III. of this work. 

A properly-constructed weir should also be provided, the 
upper sill to be the maximum level of the head of water. 



54 



V;INDMILLS. HOESE-GEAR. 



CHAPTEE Y. 

WINDMILLS. 

These machines have been used in Scotland for many- 
years as motive power, but not with such results as to justify 
their being erected, unless in particular situations. 

"Windmills are exceedingly expensive in their first con- 
struction, and in their maintenance afterwards. They are 
exceedingly uncertain and irregular in their action, and the 
farmer finds himself entirely at the mercy of the wind as to 
whether he shall have his com to market at the time he 
thinks fit or not. They are now fast disappearing from the 
face of the country, where they have been well tried, and 
therefore may be considered as quite inappKcable. 

These objections do not apply to the use of windmills for 
unwatering land, as there are, no doubt, situations where 
these machines may be well applied, for driving scoop- 
wheels, &c., as is done all over Holland. For a description 
of these mills, and the manner of constructing them, see 
Part III. of this work, on field engines and implements. 



CHAPTEE YI. 

HORSE-GEAR, 

The employment of horses for working large mills is not 
now nearly so common as formerly, for, if four or six horses' 
power is required, it is much more economical to employ 
a steam-engine. 



HORSE-GEAR. 



55 



Yerj expensive horse-wheels were formerly constructed of 
a substantial and durable character, and fixed in an appro- 
priate building. These are never now erected, a portable 
description having taken their places, and are now usually 
employed to drive thrashing-machines, &c. 

For turning edge stones, as in cyder-mills, &c., the fixed 
wheel may sometimes now be met -^-ith. They are of two 
kinds, the overhead and the underfoot wheels. The diameter 
of them is often made equal to the entire diameter of the 
horse-walk, and toothed on its outer edge. The speed is at 
once got up by this means, but it is exceedingly irregular in 
its action, and is a dead pull for the horse, there being no 
intermediate parts to equalise the strain by theh* elasticity, 
which is necessary to animal labour. The manner of yoking 
horses when employed in this way is of considerable 
importance, as the horse is always exerting himself in a 
direction tangential to the circle of his walk ; the animal, 
therefore, should draw by a swing-tree, instead of a yoke, 
attached to a beam overhead. In the case of one horse hanging 
back and leaving the others to do his work, an arrangement 
has been made which effectually prevents it. It was invented 
by ]Mr. Christie, of Pifeshire, and is described in the Trans- 
actions of the Highland Agricultural Society. The principle 
of the arrangement is, that the ring-chain forms a figure of 
as many equal sides or angles as there are horses in the 
wheel, and that the angles shall always remain equal ; by 
this means every horse is compelled to bear his fair share 
of the load. 

The horse-work in common use consists of radiating 
bars, to which the horses are fastened, attached to an 
upright shaft, which works a series of wheels by which the 
speed is got up, and conveyed to the machine by a shaft 
laid horizontally and attached to another shaft by a very 
favourite contrivance with agricultural machinists, called a 
imiversal joint. The horses have to step or stumble over 



56 



HOESE-GEAE. 



this connecting shaft in passing round. To save their heels, 
some litter and a hoard are placed over the shaft ; but the 
whole thing is as clumsy a concern as it is possible to find, 
and should never be used unless in temporary situations, as 
thrashing in the field, &c. If horses are employed regularly 
to do the work of the steading, a neat and proper machine 
should be constructed, with the shaft underground and an 
intermediate motion to carry it to the machines. 

A great improyement has been made by ]Messrs. Barrett, 
Exall, & Andrewes, in the construction of the horse-work. 



Fig. 21.— Elevation. 




Pigs. 21, 22, and 23 are an eleyation, section, and plan of 
this machine. Its action is thus : ou the inner edge of the 
cylinder are a set of cogs, which work into three loose 
wheels, and communicate the motion to a pinion on an 
upright shaft in the ceutre, on the bottom of this is 
fastened a beyel wheel working into a pinion, which commu- 
nicates the power to the outside, giving 33 revolutions for 
each circuit of the horse, so that if the horse travels round 
three times in a minute, 99 revolutions are given per minute 
to the lay shaft. 



HOESE-GEAR. 



57 



The whole of the machinery is enclosed in a cast-iron 
cylinder, with a moveable cap revohdng (when at work) on 



Fig. 22.— Section. 




its upper surface. I^'othing can gain admittance into the 
cylinder unless purposely placed there. 



Fig. 23.— Plan. 




58 



THE THEASHrN'G-MACHDsE. 



CHAPTER YII. 

THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 

Attee the anxious and arduous operations of growing 
and harvesting, the grain crops have been gone through, the 
next thing requiring the fanner's attention is preparing that 
grain for market and use, separating it from the straw 
and chaff. The first of these processes is now effected either 
by the flail or the thrashing-machine. Although these two 
implements are now the only ones in use, it may not be out 
of place here to glance at the various methods adopted in 
ancient and more modern times for effecting these purposes. 

The earliest method known or recorded for extracting the 
grain from the straw, is that sculptured upon the Egyptian 
monuments, in. which the straw was laid in a circle, and 
oxen were driven round upon it, who, by the action of their 
feet rubbed out the gi-ain. 

This is the plan alluded to in the Old Testament, where 
it is written, " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth 
out the corn." 

Other passages in Scripture also aUude to different plans, 
as in Isaiah, xxviii. 28 — " Bread-corn is bruised ; because he 
will not ever be threshing it, nor break it with the wheel of 
his cart, nor bruise it with his horsemen." 

But there is no doubt that the flail and thrashing-floor, 
something similar to that in present use, was known to, and 
used by the Jews, as in the same chapter, 27th verse, — " Eor 
the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, 
neither is a cart-wheel turned about upon the cummin ; but 
the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with 
a rod." The flail was also used, as well as other plans, by the 
Bomans, and fr^equent mention is made of the thrashing- 



THE THKASHI>^G-\rACHINE. 



59 



floor, its situation, and manner of construction, by Colu- 
mella, Yarro, and other writers, and it is from that en- 
lightened people, that the early inhabitants of these islands 
were first made acquainted with these and other operations 
connected with husbandry. 

The flail continued to be the chief implement used for 
thrashing in England, until about the year 1732, when 
mention is made of a machine for thrashing, invented by 
Mr. Michael Menzies, which is thus described in the 
" Grentleman's Magazine," 1751 : — 

" A gentleman at Dalkeith, Edinburgh, in Scotland, has 
inyented a machine for thrashing grain, which in a minute 
gives 1320 strokes, as many as 33 men thrashing briskly. 
But as men rest sometimes, and the machine never stops, it 
will give more strokes in a day than 40 men by common 
supples, and with as much strength. It does not take more 
room than t^'O men thrashing, but gets 6 per cent., or one 
peck, more in a boll, out of the straw, than in the common 
way. It goes while a water-mill is grinding, but may be 
turned by wind or horse. The inventor has a patent, and 
can make them of smaller sizes, to do the work of eight or 
ten men." 

IS; ot withstanding this laudatory description, the machine 
never came into general use, and the reason given by 
Mr. Eobert Brown, in speaking of it, is, that the flails of 
which it was composed were very soon destroyed from the 
velocity at which it was necessary to drive it ; and it seems 
that the only benefit derived from the implement was that 
it caused public attention to be directed to the subject, and 
in the end a more perfect machine was the result. 

Dui'ing the next twenty years, various attempts were 
made to construct a thrashing-machine. One of the most 
prominent was invented by Mr. Michael Stirling, a farmer 
at Dumblane, Perthshire, described as something like a fiax- 
dressing mill, the corn being let down into a cylinder, in 



60 



THE THTIASHING-MACHINE. 



which were arms or beaters, turning upon a vertical shaft, 
running at a high v^elocity. The grain was beaten out by 
these arms, and passing through the floor, left the straw 
behind. Another, in 1772, by two gentlemen of Alnwick, 
Northumberland, named Ilderton and Smart. In this, the 
sheaves were carried round between an indented drum and 
a number of fluted rollers, which, pressing by means of 
springs against the drum, rubbed out the grain. Another, 
in 1785, was invented by one "William "Winlaw, of London. 
This machine is described by Mr. Eansome, in his book of 
the Implements of Agriculture, as being made on a prin- 
ciple similar to a common cofi'ee-mill. This machine, he 
observes, effected another object, not described in the speci- 
fication, and one which the inventor hardly contemplated — 
for it ground the corn as well as thrashed it. 

In 1792 another machine was made, somewhat similar to 
the one originally constructed by Menzies. In this, a 
number of loose flails were made to act upon a grated floor, 
the straw being presented to the action of the flails by hand. 
In 1795 one Jubb, of Lewes, obtained a patent for another 
machine, with revolving beaters, the straw being held in its 
place by feeding rollers. 

ISTot one of these machines came into general use, and 
they are now mere matters of history. 

MEIKLE's THEASHIlS'a-MACHmE. 

During the latter part of this time, the attention of a 
most ingenious mechanic had been directed to the con- 
struction of a thrashing-machine. His name was Andrew 
Meikle, millwright, of Houston Mill, Tyningham, East 
Lothian. Sir Erancis Kinloch, Bart., of Gilmerton, had a 
thrashing-machine constructed, which he sent to Meikle to 
try some experiments with. It however did not succeed ; 
and Meikle, after various attempts to improve upon it, 
abandoned it as hopeless. He next set about constructing 



THE THEASHiyG-:VIACHI>rE. 



61 



another, upon a totally different plan, and, in 1786, produced 
the first really useful ttirashing-macliine ; and the principle 
of this has been the basis upon which all other machines, up 
to the present time, have been coustnicted. The mode he 
adopted was that of introducing between two rollers the 
com, which was then acted upon by four beaters fixed upon 
a revohing drum, these rollers striking as they revolved. 
The machine was found to answer so well, that an immediate 
application was made to secure the invention by patent, 
which was obtained after some slight opposition. In 
Mr. Eansome's book are copies of the original drawings 
accompanying the specification, and are, as he observes, 
exceedingly interesting, as showing how comparatively suc- 
cessful was this early design for the full accomplishment of 
the purpose intended. 

Between the time of constructing the first machine and 
the completion of the patent, a most important improve- 
ment was made in the form of the beater, by substitu- 
ting a sharp edge in place of the original flat-faced bar, 
by which means the grain was scutched instead of being 
beaten out, Mr. Eansome illustrates this diflference of 
principle, by supposing a handful of straw, -^ith the com in 
the ear, to be held in the hand, while, with the flat side of a 
thin piece of wood, the ears should be struck or beaten. 
This is the operation of the common beater. If, instead of 
striking the com with the flat side, a sharp blow be given 
with the thin edge, in the direction of the ear, it will strip 
the com from such parts as the edge touches with less 
labour and with greater certainty. 

The merits of ^Ir. Meikle's machine having been now 
satisfactorily proved, its fame spread abroad, and, as might 
be expected, it was soon imitated by other millwrights, some 
of whom claimed to be the inventors of it. Still it did not, 
for the first ten years, come much into use, nor did the 
inventor reap any great benefit from it. It is, however, 



62 



THE THEASHIXG-3IACHIXE. 



satisfactory to know, on the authority of Mr. Eobert Brown, 
that a society of gentlemen, headed by Sir John Sinclair, 
raised a fund suf&cient to render his declining years comfort- 
able, and enable him to provide for his family. 

Professor Low says, " To Andrew Meikle belongs the 
honour of having invented the first thrashing-machine. 
Changes and improvements have indeed been made in 
certain parts of the original machine, but in all its essential 
parts, and in the principle of its construction, it remains as 
it came from the hands of the inventor." 

Thrashing-machines upon Meikle' s principle are now 
common in Scotland, and few large farms are without one. 
These thrashing-machines, or thrashing-mills, as they are 
generally called, are regularly constructed works, per- 
manently fixed, and are very expensive in their first cost. 
A few have been erected in England upon the example 
farms of noblemen, as at Holkham, TVTiitfield, and other 
places ; but they cannot be said to be in general use. The 
machine used in England is simply a thrashing-machine, 
and is generally portable, while the Scotch machine is 
always fixed, and has winnowing apparatus attached : it is 
much clumsier in construction, and though acting upon the 
grain by beaters placed on a drum parallel to its axis, yet 
the principle of forcing the grain from the husk is quite 
different. In the Scotch machines, the grain being held 
fast between rollers is subjected to the action of the 
revolving beaters, and the corn scutched or beaten out, the 
concave or breasting having little to do with it ; while in 
the English machines the breasting plays the most important 
part, the grain being rubbed out instead of being beaten 
out during its passage between the concave and the cylinder, 
which is driven at a much higher velocity in the English 
machines than in the Scotch. One great difference in the 
action of the machines is, that in the Scotch the beaters 
strike upwards in nearly all cases : in England it is the 



THE THRASHING-MACPIINE. 



63 



reverse ; the corn never is sufficiently long subjected to the 
action of the beaters in consequence. The feeding rollers 
are generally made fluted or indented longitudinally in some 
way, as they are when smooth very liable to clog by the 
straw wrapping itself round them, should it be in a damp 
state. They are usually about four inches in diameter, and 
wider than the drum, and made of cast-iron. They are 
worked by gear attached to part of the machine in motion, 
and require to have their speed regulated according to the 
description and condition of the material they are working 
with. 

The cylinder is made a close drum with the beaters as 
projections upon it ; in the English machines it is nearly 
always open. The diameter of the drum is generally about 
3 feet, and varies in width from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 
and even 5 feet; about 3 feet 6 inches is the ordinary 
dimension. 

Attached to the machine for thrashing is an apparatus for 
shaking the straw ; this is generally formed of another large 
close cylinder, having tines or spikes projecting from it ; 
generally two of these shakers are attached to each machine ; 
they revolve much slower than the thrashing-drum, and are 
driven with cog-gear. The whole is fitted up in one large 
case, and is generally placed upon an elevated stage, or 
upper floor of the barn, to allow of the blowing, winnowing, 
or cleaning machinery being arranged beneath it ; there are 
several other contrivances for effecting different objects, such 
as lifting the sheaves to the feed-rollers and raising the com, 
after it has been thrashed out from the husk, to the hop- 
pers of the cleaning machine. 

One of the best and most complete thrashing-machines 
erected is at Whitfield, and the following description I have 
extracted from Mr. Eansome's' book (The Implements of 
Agriculture), where the early contrivances and the progress 
of the thrashing-machine are treated at great length, and 



64 



THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 



some interesting cuts inserted of tlie earliest attempts to 
construct this important macliine : — 

" This machine is worked hj sl steam-engine of six-horse 
power. The corn is brought from the stack upon waggons, 
running along a tram-road upon an inclined plane, to the 
doors of the building, whence, sheaf by sheaf, it is thrown 
by children into the buckets of an elevator, which, in its 
rotation, carries them to the feeding-board. This feeding- 
board is placed at a tangent from the drum parallel with its 
top ; and, as in Lee's machine, and the portable machines in 
Suffolk and Norfolk, the feeding-rollers are dispensed with ; 
an endless web gradually carries the unthrashed straw to 
the feeding mouth, from which the revolving scutchers 
rapidly convey it to the concave. The drum is about 
18 inches diameter, formed of sheet-iron strained round a 
cast-iron skeleton, accurately turned. Upon this the beaters, 
or rather scutchers, formed of angle iron with its edges 
planed, are so placed as to describe an angle with the surface 
of the drum, pointing forward in the direction of its 
motion ; these project about i of an inch. The screen, 
or concave, incloses the drum to the extent of about i 
of its circumference, and consists of four or five arched 
pieces of grating, 3 inches wide, joined together. It is made 
of cast-iron bars, having a square section placed so that every 
one shall present an edge to the passage of the straw, 
uniting (as it is not uncommon in other machines) the 
fluted concave of the Scotch machine with the wired grating 
of the Eaglish ones. The screen is supported on iron 
bolts, so that it approaches to within about ^ of an inch of 
the edge of the scutcher. Spiral springs surround these 
bolts, which permit the bars of the concave to yield when 
too much pressure may at any time occur between them and 
the revolving drum. The ''grain is thus sepai'ated, most of 
it passing through the screen of the concave ; but in order 
that no grain shall be allowed to pass away with the straw, 



THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 



65 



it is thrown upon tlie shaker below. This is a moveable 
harp or screen, and is made of spars -f- of an inch from 
one another, 2 inches deep, f of an inch wide, and 6 feet 
long ; thej are thirty in number, and are thus arranged 
over a width of 3 feet 9 inches. These spars are fixed to 
two pair of frames — the odd, 1, 3, 5, &c., being attached to 
one pair, and the even numbers, 2, 4, 6, to the other pair. 
These frames are supported by two iron shafts, each having 
two cranks projecting 3^ inches on each side of them ; the 
frames are attached to these cranks by arms with brasses, in 
which the cranks revolve ; the shafts are connected together 
by a rod, so that they both move at the same time. In the 
revolution of the cranks, everything attached to them also 
revolves ; so that each point of the arms, frames, and spars 
revolves about a centre belonging to itself only ; at the 
same time, the regularity in the length of the crank, and the 
uniform motion of the two shafts, has the effect of keeping 
the frames always parallel ; their position at any one point 
being parallel to their position at any other. The blows 
occasioned, as each series of spars strike the straw from 
beneath, effectively remove every particle of loose grain, while 
the shaker rapidly carries forward the straw, and at its 
termination deposits it in the straw-house, while the com, 
sifted out by its action, falls before the blast of a fanner ; 
and all the light grain and short straws, thrown out by the 
first winnowing into the light corn spout, is then taken up 
by another elevator, deposited again upon the feeding-board, 
and passed a second time through the drum, in order 
effectually to separate any that may remain. After passing 
through another T\-innower, the thoroughly cleaned corn is 
taken up by a third elevator and dropped into a hopper, 
through which it passes into a sack, which is placed on a 
weighing machine, and it is there weighed and left thoroughly 
fit for market." 

The Enghsh thrashing-machine, as we have before observed, 



66 



THE THEASHING-MACHINE. 



is simply a macliine to separate the kernels of tlie corn from 
tlie husks ; it is therefore smaller and much cheaper ; and 
as the large fixed machine will never make a sufficiently 
clean sample of wheat for market, the English farmers prefer 
performing all the operations of cleaning entirely separate 
from the thrashing process. 

The original inventor of the English machine seems to 
have been H. P. Lee, Esq., of Maidenhead Thicket ; for he 
first got rid of the cumbrous feeding-rollers and arranged 
the concave as it is now used. The English machine now 
in use consists of a cylinder with five or six beaters attached 
on arms which radiate from the centre. These beaters are 
variously formed by different makers ; sometimes they are 
square bars of wood faced with iron plates ; at another they 
are circular iron rods, or semicircular bars striking with 
their sharp edges, and in one class of machines they are 
bars with serrated or notched faces. These beaters, scutchers, 
or rubbers — for they combine the three operations, in their 
passage by the concave — force out the grain from the husks. 
The concave, or screen, surrounds the drum for about the 
third part of its circumference; it, like the beaters, is 
formed in a variety of ways, but generally consists of 
a series of ribs, between which is placed a wire grating ; 
the front of the ribs is generally covered with a plate of cast- 
iron having a fiuted or grooved face. The straw is fed over a 
feeding-board, the heads foremost into the space between 
the concave and the breasting, and drawn through by the 
revolving cylinder. The space between the concave and the 
drum is adjusted by means of two screws ; it is usual to set 
the opening at the feed about an inch and a half, and 
decrease it to about an inch where the straw is delivered. 
A harp, or screen, is placed here, through which the corn 
falls, and the straw is removed with forks. 

Machines upon this principle, with slight modifications, 
are now made by all the large manufacturers, and an 



THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 



67 



important addition has lately been made for shaking the 
straw after it leaves the cylinder ; this principle is applied 
to the machines manufactured by Mr. Garrett, and is shown 
in Eig. 26. Messrs. Hornsby also construct it, and Messrs. 
Clayton & Shuttleworth manufacture a most efficient 
machine, of which they have favoured me with the following 
description : — . 

" The chief novelty in this machine is the (registered) 
vibrating trough, which is suspended by four links, and 
extends the whole length of the machine and straw-shaker, 
and has a reciprocating motion given to it by means of a 
crank. The great quantity of pulse, or colder, which drops 
through the bars of the straw-shaker, has long been con- 
sidered very objectionable, inasmuch as it increases consider- 



Fig. 24. 




gareett's thrashing-machine packed for travelling. 



ably the amount of labour in the barn, both at the time of 
thrashing, and also when going through the dressing-machine. 



68 



THE THRASHIJsG-MACHINE. 




But, by means of the vibrating 
trough, the whole, as it di'ops 
from the thrashing-drum and 
straw- shaker, is caught and 
passed over a riddle; under 
which the blast is directed, 
thereby effectually separating 
the corn, chaff, and pulse from 
each other, each being dis- 
charged into the places as- 
signed for them, thus effecting 
a considerable saving in manual 
labour." 

As the English farm stead- 
ings are at present generally 
without fixed motive power, the 
thrashiug-machiue is usually 
constructed in a portable form, 
and is made to pack up neatly 
with the horse work, and can 
so be removed from place to 
place. Fig. 24 represents the 
machine as packed for travell- 
ing, and rig. 25 as arranged 
for work in the field. 

Straw that has passed 
through a machine is, from 
being broken, rendered unfit 
for thatching and other pur- 
poses. A machine therefore has 
been introduced for thrashing 
the straw lengthways, and is 
called a bolting machine. I 
am not aware who was the first 
inventor of it ; I believe it was 



THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 



69 



the Messrs. Garrett. I find tlie following notice of one 
introduced to the Eoyal Agricultural Society by Messrs. 
Eansomes & May, at the Derby Meeting in 1843 : — 

" A wheat thrashing-machine, by Messrs. Eansome, was 
distinguished by some novelties which deserve notice. It 
was driven by the horse-engine previously referred to as 
having the connecting shaft over head; its chief characteristics 
consist in an arrangement of the beaters, so that they are 
fed with the straw and ears in a horizontal, instead of a 
vertical direction, by which means the straw is delivered 
flat, straight, and unbroken. Thus the straw, after being 
thrashed, issues in a state ready for immediate tying up. The 
machine is also furnished with a contrivance for conveying and 
shaking the straw. The judges cannot but highly commend 
Messrs. Kansome's efibrts and ingenuity in perfecting a 
species of thrashing-machine more particularly coveted by 
farmers residing near large towns, to whom the production 
of clean unbroken straw is frequently an object of more 
importance than the thrashing out the greatest possible 
quantity of grain in a given time." 

Eig. 26 represents a section of what may be considered 
one of the best specimens of the English thrashing-machine, 
all the most recent improvements being applied to it. It 
is manufactured by Messrs, Grarrett, of Leiston Works, near 
Saxmundham, Sufiblk, who have devoted the greatest 
possible attention to the improving this important machine. 
The form of the beaters and the concave is peculiar ; and is 
the result of repeated trials and experiments. 

Reference to Plate. 
A Drum, of improved construction, which performs the operation 
of thrashing. 

- B Concave or breastwork surrounding the drum, adjusted by the 
regulating irons, hl> h. 
C Straw-shaker, which receives the straw from the drum of the 
machine, and shakes out all loose kernels that may be 
amongst it. 



70 



THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 



D Screen vibrating on the rods, d d, the corn, chaff,. &c., being 
conducted from the concave and shaker; it is for the 
purpose of sepai*ating the loose ears, short straws, cavings, 
&c., from amongst the corn and light chaff. 

E Blast fan, for winnowing the light chaff from the corn, while 
the corn is passing over the screen, D. 

p An apartment for the corn after it has gone through the various 
processes above described ; it is delivered free from all chaff 
or rubbish. If the thrashing apparatus is fixed in a 
building, the corn may be conducted from this receptacle 
to the dressing machine, once passing through the sieves of 
which will render it fit for market. 

Fig. 26.— Section. 




Garrett's improved thrashing-machine and stra.w-shaker. 

One of the great defects in tlie thrasliing-macliine is 
the difficulty of adjusting the concave or breasting to the 
different widths of opening necessary for the different 



THE THRASHING-MACHINE. 71 

» 

descriptions . of grain to be thraslied ; as it is evident that 
drawing the one circle from without the other will leave a 
space greater in the middle than at either end. The breasting 
is generally made in two pieces, and adjusted with screws, 
to accommodate itself, as nearly as possible, to the drum ; 
but it is then in anything but a perfect state ; and bad 
thrashing is generally the result of too much meddling with 
these screws, when the machine is in the hands of the 
ordinary farm labourer. 

Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes are the patentees of 
an improved thrashing-machine, in which this difficulty is 
got rid of in a most ingenious manner, by the introduction 
of a wrought-iron concave, or breasting, formed of separate 
bars, with grooved faces, working through slots in the side 
of the machine, and brought nearer to, or carried further 
from, the drum, by means of two circles. These work 
round its centre, with a continuous grooved worm cut on 
their faces, in which the breasting-bars move. This arrange- 
ment allows the bars to separate wider from each other, as 
well as more distant from the drum; and thus gives the 
larger corn, beans, peas, &c., a wider space to escape when 
thrashed. 

Messrs. Hensman's improvements are thus described by 
them in their catalogue : (I have had no personal experience 
with Hensman's machines, but I know from report that 
they are thought very highly of by those who use them ;)— 

^ " One great feature of importance in the construction of 

1 these machines, and which makes them of the utmost value 
to agriculturists, is, the outer edges of the beaters, or 
thrashing cylinder, being of a Vandyke or tooth shape, 

: which revolve between similar notches in the concave ; and 
is found to search the straw so perfectly, as to get out all 

1 the grain, without injuring either corn or straw more than 
flail- thrashing. They will also thrash with the concave, at 
a great distance from the drum, whereby the draught of the 



72 THE WINNOWING-MACHINE. 

« 

horses is much diminished ; in addition to which they are 
so arranged that the horses do not require to be driven 
faster than the usual ploughing pace, as over^driving is 
always found to distress farm horses more than the draught 
of the machine. 

" By the use of these machines, the evils so long com- 
plained of in barley-thrashing on the old principle, are 
entirely dispensed with : viz., those of passing it through 
the machine twice, and of injuring it for malting. They are 
warranted to thrash barley, and all other grain, perfectly 
clean, at one operation ; the process being more like rubbing 
or stripping than beating the corn. The necessary speed of 
the drum is procured by three motions, instead of two only, 
as was formerly the plan : and this alteration, with other 
improvements throughout, has added considerably to the 
ease of working, and much diminished the wear and tear of 
the machine." 



CHAPTEE yill. ^ 

WINNOWING MACHINES.— HUMMELING MACHINES.— SMUT 
MACHINE.— SEED SEPARATING MACHINE. 

THE WINNOWING-MACHINE. 

After the grains of corn have been forced from the husks 
by the action of the beaters of the thrashing-machine, or the 
flail, it is necessary to separate them from the hulls, chaff, or 
caving, as it is variously called, as well as from all small 
seeds, little stones, dirt, and other matter, that shall take 
from the cleanliness of the sample. This is effected by the 
operation called winnow^ing. 

In the earlier ages this was performed by merely lifting 
the corn and chaff in long narrow shovels, and against the 



THE WINNOWING-MACHINE. 



78 



direction of the wind. The chaff, being so much lighter, 
was by this means, in its passage from the shovels to the 
ground, blown a considerable distance from the wheat, and 
an imperfect separation took place. An immense variety of 
contrivances are alluded to in Scripture, and in classic 
writings, as being employed to separate the chaff from the 
corn. Sieves are often alluded to, and fans, from which it 
may be presumed that an artificial draft was early obtained, 
as it would be exceedingly inconvenient to be waiting for a 
natural wind. E.oman writers, however, speak of waiting 
for the wind ; and Columella describes how the corn should 
be heaped, that it may not injure from lying on the floor. 
He also alludes to the using of fans, should no wind blow, 
from which I judge his fanning apparatus to be so incon- 
venient and ineffective, that it was only used in cases of 
sheer necessity. He also remarks on the danger of waiting, 
lest when the wind does come, it may be a storm, and blow 
corn and chaff away together. 

Sieves were used to give the corn a second dressing, after 
the chaff had been removed, and to take out stones, dirt, &c. 
Common fans are used now in various parts of Asia, with a 
sieve for cleaning corn. 

Mr. Ritchie describes the manner of winnowing in the 
western highlands of Scotland as being in a most primitive 
state : — " The grain is winnowed by a fan or shovel, which is 
made of sheepskin, stretched on a wooden hoop or circle, 
about two inches deep. Two sieves or riddles are also used ; 
the one perforated with large and the other with small holes. 
The Highland barns are of the most simple and antique 
description. The barn has two doors, which, during the 
operation are left open ; and the person who winnows 
stands in the middle between the two doors, lifts the grain 
in the fan, holds it in both hands, shakes it slightly with 
one hand, and the grain drops gently, while the husks are 
carried away hj the current of wind entering at one door 

VOL. n. E 



74 



THE WINNOWING-MACHIXE. 



and blowing out at the other. This has been until lately 
the ordinaiy manner of winnowing all over England : the 
only difference being in the form of fan : the one in general 
use in England being made of two upright supports, with a 
notch in the top, in which rested a horizontal shaft. Upon 
this shaft was placed four bars of wood parallel with it, and 
about fifteen inches from it : the connection being formed 
with wooden arms. On the outer edge of these bars is 
fastened a piece of cloth by one edge only. This reel or 
fanner is placed on the wooden supports, and turned by a 
Avinch fixed at one end, the pieces of cloth flying out from 
the bars, and as the machine revolves, a considerable current 
of air is produced. This machine will be found in many old 
farmeries at this day. 

The first regular winnowing-machine used either in 
England or Scotland was introduced from Holland, by 
Andrew Eletcher of SaltouQ. 

The Dutch had no doubt pre"\T.ously obtained the idea 
from the East Indies, as a machine for driving oft' chaft" and 
dust was invented and applied by the Chinese to the cleaning 
of rice. In Holland this machine is attached to mills for 
making pot or pearl barley. 

James Meikle, father to Meikle who invented the thrashing- 
machine, was sent to Holland by the Laird of Saltoun to 
learn the art of sheeling barley, in order to effect the 
introduction of the barley-mill. 

On Meikle' s return he made the first fanners ever seen 
in Great Britain for the Saltoun Barley Mills. Meikle was 
bound in his agreement with the laird not to communicate 
the art he had learned to any other, nor to make any profit 
of it after leaving the laird's service. 

A large and improved form of this machine, applicable to 
the cleaning all sorts of grain, began to be manufactured 
about 1733, by Eogers, of Cavers, Eoxbui-ghshire. These 
machines, though greatly preferable to the old methods Ox 



THE WINNOWING-MACHINE. 



75 



dressing by hand, were still in a rude state, and the corn 
required to be passed two or three times through the 
machine before it was a clean marketable sample. In 1768 
other improvements were added, and a patent taken out by 
A. B. Meikle. Moodie, of Lilliesheaf, seems to have been 
the inventor of the first machine that would at one operation 
separate the grain from the chaff and lighter seeds, and 
completely riddle it of all sorts of refuse ; Mr. Gooch, of 
Northampton, in the year 1800, patented a highly improved 
machine (upon which are based all the winnowing-machines 
at present in use) . 



Fig. 27. 




I gooch's patent avinxowing-hachine. 

I 

1 -This machine, invented in 1800, gained a prize in 1841 

j from the Eoyal Agricultural Society, and his machine is 

ij . at the present time considered one of the very best in use. 

' The principle upon which the modern improved winnowiD g- 

E 2 

r 



76 



THE TTI^^yOWIXG-MACHIXE. 



macliiiies act is this: a strong current of wind is driven 
(by means of a revolying fan) througli an inclined tunnel ; 
above this tunnel is a bopper, having a sluice gate, 
tbrougb wbicb tbe corn is allowed to pass in anj given 
quantity. Tbe bottom of tbe timnel is formed of wire 
sieves of different degrees of fineness, eacb division of wire 
having a receptacle below ; beneath the hopper is placed a 
frame, wliich contains one or two sieves, and is called the 
riddle frame ; one end of this frame is attached to the 
bottom of the hopper, and the other is supported by a chain 
or other contrivance, allowing of its being moved ^vith a 
peculiar jerking motion by a crank which passes through the 
side of the machine, and is worked by a small connecting- 
rod from the shaft, upon which the blower is himg. 

The corn and chaff being placed in the hopper, pass 
through the aperture at the bottom into the shaking riddle, 
where it is at once acted upon by the wind from the fan, 
and the lighter chaff is blown off; the remainder passes 
through the riddles into the sieves below, where any other 
light material is again removed ; as the grain comes forward 
towards the ciuTcnt the different sized grains, as well as the 
small seeds, find their way each into its proper place. There 
are a variety of differences in the details of these machines, 
but all agricultural machine-makers make very effective 
machines for cleaning the grain. 

Messrs. Hornsby, of the Spittlegate Iron Works, Grant- 
ham, have paid great attention to this machine, and have 
received several prizes for their improved corn-dressing 
apparatus ; the advantage consists in its being fitted with 
a spike roller, working through a grating, so arranged as to 
form a hopper ; it is capable of separating the corn from the 
chaff in a rough pulsy state, as it comes from the thrashing- 
machine, without having been previously riddled, and is 
easily adjusted to suit corn either in rough chaff or any 
other state. It is also fitted with a double shaking-screen 



HUMMELING-MACHINES. 



77 



at bottom, wliicli more effectually cleans the com from all 
kinds of small seeds than a fixed one can possibly do. For 
the second time over, the strap is removed, which puts the 
roller out of gear ; and a board being placed in front of 
the gratings makes it an excellent machine for finishing 
the corn for market. 

HUMMELING-MACHINES. 

These machines are for the purpose of removing the awns 
from the barley-corns ; they are sometimes called barley- 
avelers or awners. 

The most simple way in which this is done is to spread 
the barley out on the barn floor, about two inches thick, 
and with an instrument called a hand-hummeler (or barley 
chopper by labourers) chop the barley all over till the awns 
are cleared of the grain. 

These hand-hummelers, though differently constructed, 
all act upon one principle, that of acting upon the barley 
with a series of blunt knives, or flat bars of iron, set edge- 
ways in a frame of ii'on ; they are sometimes made circular, 
at others square, and occasionally I have seen them made to 
revolve over the barley ; when this is the case the blades 
are put between two circular plates of iron, and fitted with 
a handle, like a hand-roller; but all these hand-machines 
are exceedingly slow in their action, and ought only to be 
nsed on exceedingly small farms, or by cottagers. The 
machine-hummelers are much more effective, and not costly 
to purchase ; they are made in a variety of ways, but all act 
on similar principles. 

The largest description are formed of cylinders, about 
6 feet long, of wire gauze ; within this cylinder is an 
-upright shaft, having (radiating from its centre) a series of 
blunt blades, about 2 inches in breadth ; at the top of the 
cylinder is a hopper, through which the barley is admitted, 
and at the bottom is an aperture for its exit ; the degree of 



78 



THE smut-:>:achixe. 



rubbiug it sustains from tlie revolving- blades depending on 
tbe size of tbe opening tlirough wliicb it is allowed to 
escape, and wMch is easily regulated, a very bigb velocity is 
given to tlie upright sbaft and tlie blades, to ensiu^e tbeir 
efficient action. 

Messrs. Eansomes manufacture a barley-bummeler of an 
efficient character. It consists of a perforated iron barrel, 
on a wood stand, with a revolving spindle, fitted with blunt 
knives, which revolve at a high velocity. There is a slide at 
the bottom of the hopper to regulate the feed into the 
barrel ; beneath this is another slide to regulate the passage 
of the barley down the spout when finished. Care is requi- 
site not to fill the barrel too full, as it increases the labour 
of turning, without any corresponding advantage. A rough 
sample of wheat is much improved by running it thi^ougli 
this machine. 

From eight to ten quarters of barley may be run through 
per hour by a man and a boy. Messrs. Grarrett also manu- 
facture an excellent machine with the cylinder inclined 
instead of horizontal, as in Messrs. Eansome's, or 
upright, as in the old machines ; it effectually rubs off" the 
awns from the barley, and screens away all loose rubbish 
from the corn, leaving the kernels clean and the sample 
brighter. 

THE SMrT-MACHU^E. 

This is a very useful machine, not costly, and consuming 
very little power ; therefore one ought to be attached to all 
farmeries, where anything like a regular system of machines is 
erected. "We all know how much the state of the sample of 
wheat, as regards cleanliness and soundness, affects the price 
it will fetch at market, and therefore how much it must be 
to the farmer's advantage always to send his corn, of what- 
ever description, to market in the best possible condition. 

The smut-machine is so called, because chiefly used by 



THE SMUT-MACHINE. 



79 



millers for extracting the black specks, or powder, from 
wheat which has become smutted. 

Smiit in wheat is an exceedingly common disease of the 
plant ; it shows itself by a black powder taking the place 
occupied by the farina in sound corn, within the husk ; it 
attacks all sorts of corn, and presents a great diversity of 
appearance, and bears a number of popular names ; it arises 
from two minute conimycetous fungi — the uredo segefMin, 
and the uredo fcetida: sometimes it exists only in exceed- 
ingly small specks, and at another the whole of the shell of 
the grain is full of fine sooty powder. 

It may easily be imagined, that wheat so affected, when 
ground, will be very inferior in appearance to sound wheat 
flour. The smut-machine is therefore employed to clear out 
from the wheat all the black matter that may be in it, which 
it does most effectively ; and not only the actual smut is 
taken out, but all other dirt and foreign matter is removed, 

while the grain assumes a 
"^^s-^Q- clean, bright, and polished 

appearance, which millers 
like, as they know it will 
make superior and brighter 
flour. 

Pig. 28 represents the 
ordinary manner of con- 
str acting smut-machines. 
In a wooden case, enclosed 
on every side, is placed a 
cylinder of stout Avire, and 
inclined downwards at a 
'considerable angle ; the cylinder is constructed in every 
respect similar to an ordinary dressing-machine ; through 
the centre of the cylinder is a shaft, upon w^hich is placed a 
series of arms, and lengthways of the cylinder ; upon these, 
spars of wood, which carry strong brushes. The wheat is • 




80 SEED-SEPARATING MACHINE. GEINDING-MILLS. 

admitted at the upper end, and in passing through the 
cylinder is forced against the Avire gratiQg, while the action 
of the brushes effectually forces the smut or dirt through 
the meshes of the -wire, or any small seeds that may .have 
escaped the winno wing-machine ; the dirt remains in the 
box outside the cylinder, from whence it is occasionally 
removed ; and the amount of filth that will be brushed out 
from the wheat after it has been made as fair a sample as 
possible by the fanners, will prove to any one the necessity 
of its always being used. 

SEED-SEPAEATING MACHINE. 

A variety of machines for effecting this object have been 
devised. An excellent one was invented by "W. Eobiiison, 
of Belfast, and exhibited by Messrs. Deane, Dray, & Co., 
at the Smithfield Club Show last year. It consists of a 
long wire screen, set at an angle, and composed of a variety 
of different-sized wire gratings : to this screen a peculiar 
reciprocating and shaking motion was given by means of a 
crank placed at its lower end; it wiU clean and separate 
rye-grass, taking away the fod-grass, black seed, and all 
other small seeds, by only passing once through the 
machine, and likewise make a perfect sample of flax-seed 
and corn. 



CHAPTEE IX. 



GRINDING-MILLS. 

Some machines for bruising or grinding corn must have 
been used in the most remote times. The first doubtless was 
a kind of bowl, in which the wheat was pounded as with a 
pestle and mortar. It is a remarkable fact that the most 
' ancient mills of which we have any account are nearly upon 



GEINDI^^G-MILLS. 



81 



the same principle as those iu common use at this day, that 
is, composed of circular flat stones, the bottom one fixed, 
the upper one revolving upon it. At first these mills were 
made to hold in the lap, and work vrith one hand, and after- 
wards by levers, in. the manner of a capstan. dSov was this 
the only form in which the mill-stones were made, for we 
have several actual specimens in existence of very ancient 
conical mills, which are the more interesting now as there 
are several conical mills lately introduced, and one of the 
most recent seems very Hkely to be generally introduced. 

The construction of corn-mills for the manufacture ol 
flour on a large scale cannot be considered, strictly speaking, 
as a portion of the regular business of the farmer, but as 
farms are increased in size, and a more regular system of 
machinery established in the steadings, and engines of 
larger power employed to drive it, there can be no doubt 
but that a properly constructed corn-mill, vrorking two 
paKS of stones, will be constructed in every case ; for 
although a nimiber of ingenious mills have been invented, 
and are manufactured for the various purposes required by 
agriculturists, none of them can compete in efficiency with 
a pair of good biu-r- stones. It is true there is one great 
drawback in the use of stones, that is, the difficulty of 
dressing them : but in large farms employing a large quan- 
tity of machinery, one man will be requu-ed to devote 
himself enth'ely to the engine and machinery, superintend- 
ing the driving it, and keeping it in order and repair : this 
man might soon acquire the necessary knowledge to dress 
the stones, as a part of his ordinaiy duties. I have no fear 
but that when a man of superior intelligence and character 
is required in the steading, and a little encoiu'agement given 
in the shape of better wages, he will soon make his appear- 
ance. I have remarked that a knowledge of any new 
implement or machine is very quickly acquii^ed by a smart 
agTicultiu-al labom^er, and in a very short time he becomes 



82 



GEIXDIXG-JlILLS. 



quite an autlioritj^ about its characteristics, and the best 
time and manner of using it ; be only requires to be properly 
instructed at starting, and practice "vrill soon make him 
perfect. In all large steadings a pair of stones should be 
erected in a proper manner, that is pretty much the same as 
in small corn-mills, and attached should be a dressing and a 
smut-machine. A short description of these machines may 
be of value here, as this book is intended specially for 
persons in the colonies, who may not there have access to 
more elaborate treatises. As a foundation for the stones, 
and to carry the bearings of the machinery, it is usual to 
construct what is caUed the " mill-hurst." This is composed 
of iron columns and girders, if of iron, but as our object is to 
describe the simplest and cheapest, we will presume it to be 
made entirely of wood, and for two pairs of stones. 

A solid foundation having been obtained, stout siUs of 
oak are framed together, forming a parallelogram. Upright 
pieces are then placed at each angle, and lintels on the top, 
the whole mortised and tenoned together, forming a sub- 
stantial frame, upon which the machinery is to be placed : 
across the top of the frame, in its shortest dimension, are 
placed deep pieces of timber as joists, called the stone- 
bearers ; uj)on these are placed the lower stones, called the 
bed-stones; this is carefully laid, wedged perfectly true, 
and should be quite steady and firm in its seat. 

Directly above the sill of the hurst in the centre, and 
crossiug it, is introduced the driving-shaft, or as it is called 
by millers, the lay- shaft : one end of this runs in a plummer 
block securely placed on the sill of the hui'st ; the other 
usually passes through the waR of the miU, and is carried 
outside the drum which drives the mill, or if a water-wheel, 
it is the water-wheel shaft introduced into the mill as a 
lay-shaft at once. Upon this shaft, a short distance from 
the centre of the hurst, is placed vertically a large toothed 
wheel called the pit-wheel ; the teeth are generally of wood 



GKINDIXG-MILLS. 



S3 



and work into a small liorizontal iron toothed bevel wheel 
called the waller, placed upon the upright shaft ; in the 
bottom of this upright shaft is an iron gudgeon which works 
in a solid brass bearing. As the centre of the upright is 
exactly over the horizontal centre of the lay-shaft, it is 
evident that some means must be adopted to carry it ; the 
ordinary manner is to carry a bridge beam across the hurst 
lengthways ; each end of the block is supported on a beam., 
which is tenoned into tlie uprights that form the hiu^st. The 
brass bearing on which the gudgeon of the shaft works is 
placed on an iron carriage fixed to the bridge beam, and is 
adjusted to a fixed centre by fotir screws on the carriage. 
Directly above the waller upon the upright shaft, is placed 
another wheel not bevelled, and much larger than the waller 
called the crown, wheel. This wheel usually has wooden 
teeth, and these work into the teeth of the stone nut or 
pinion. Thrcaig-li tLe centre of the lower, or bed stone, is 
cut a circidar hole, throtigh which the spindle passes to carry 
and ttu-n the upper stone, or, as it is called, the runner. 
The two stones are circttlar and of the same diameter, but 
the runner is usually mtich thicker than the bed-stone : 
these will be found described under the head of mill 
stones. The upper stone has a large hole cut through the 
centre and seciu*ely fixed ; across the bottom of this is a 
strong iron bar or bearing iron : this is made square and 
bent downwards so as to form an arch. It is necessary 
in the process of grinding, that the upper stone shotild 
revolve with great velocity above the lower, not touching, 
but the distance adjusted with great nicety, as much depends 
upon it as to the sample of the fiour when ground. 'We 
have before said, that through the centre of the bed-stone, 
there is placed the spindle, which is a stout bar of iron, 
the bottom resting upon a brass bearing, to which we 
shall presently allude, and on the top is a large boss of iron 
having a slot cut through large enotighto admit of the bearing 



84 



GEINDING-MILLS. 



iron before alluded to, dropping into it ; on the top of tlie 
bed-stone, oyer the hole through which the spindle passes, 
is placed an iron plate, the upper sui'face of which is level 
with the top of the bed-stone ; the lower surface of the boss 
on the spindle works down upon this and prevents the flour 
working through. 

We have before remarked, that the space between the 
stones requires to be adjusted with great nicety ; some 
arrangement must therefore be made to raise and lower the 
bottom of the spindle which supports the upper stone or 
runner. 

In very old mills this is effected in a very simple manner ; 
between the two upright posts that form the hurst is placed 
a beam, one end being formed into a large tenon and let into 
a mortise in the post. Through the post and the tenon is 
passed a pin, upon which the beam is supported and allowed 
to move ; the other end of the beam is worked upwards and 
downwards on a slot, by a capstan-headed screw ; on the 
centre of the beam is placed the brass bearing to receive the 
arbor of the spindle. This beam and the runner above are 
often regulated by a governor, which will be found described 
in the chapter on the steam-engine. 

Upon the spindle is placed a small cog- wheel called the 
stone pinion or stone nut ; the cogs or teeth of this wheel 
are placed exactly opposite the cogs of the large horizontal 
wheel called the crown-wheel, and from that it receives its 
motion. 

We have now arranged the means of driving the stone 
pinion and the runner, and provided the means for regulating 
the action of the stones ; but there is another provision to 
be made, that is, the means of disengaging the stone pinion 
from the crown wheel, so that one pair of stones may be run 
alone, or, if necessary, both pans disengaged and the upright 
shaft driven by itself for the purpose of working the 
machinery attached to it, and placed in the upper floors of 



GRINDING- MILLS. 



85 



tlie mill. This is effected in the most primitive forms of 
mills by removing one of the vrooden teeth from the pinion, 
the teeth of the crown wheel then passing by without 
touching ; this is an exceedingly rude method of working, 
as the moveable teeth will soon become loose. A better plan 
is to have the pinion set on a square on the spindle, and by 
means of levers it rises up clear of the crown wheel, and 
remains so until required to be used. The description of 
mill we are describing is of the simplest form, which I think 
is therefore more likely to be understood by non-professional 
readers ; but both for the purpose of lifting the runner and 
ungearing the pinion, beautiful mechanical contrivances are 
adopted by millwrights, which work with the greatest 
accuracy and facility, and I regret not having space to 
describe them in detail. 

"We must now proceed to the upper stage of the mill 
for the purpose of tracing the coiu-se of the wheat through 
j the mill, until it leaves it in the shape of meal. 

The wheat is placed in hoppers, which are conical-shaped 
boxes, having an aperture at the lowest point through which 
the wheat passes into shoots or spouts to smaller hoppers 
I placed over the mill stone ; at the lowest point of these 
' hoppers is an aperture through which the wheat passes into 
; a small spout open at the top and placed nearly horizontally; 
the lower hopper is placed on a framework which stands 
upon the wooden cover of the stone called the hoop, ^^early 
at the end of the small shoot is a hole tln^ough which the 
I wheat passes into the large aperture in the centre of the 
runner ; a jerking motion is given to the shoe by a pecu- 
. liar shaped spindle, worked from the stone below. The 
I wheat having now arrived at the grinding stones, some 
description of them is necessary before proceeding farther. 

Mill Stones. — These stones are made of a variety of 
materials, of a stone brought down the Ehine and called 
peak stones, sometimes sienite or granite; but the 



86 



GEINDIJ^G-MILLS. 



material that of all others is preferred is called burr stone : 
this is found in the mineral basin of Paris, and although an 
immense quantity of it is quarried, inasmuch as the revet- 
ment walls of the fortifications of Paris are made with it, 
yet it is only small selected pieces that will be found fit for 
mill- stones. 

The burr stone is geologically the uppermost stratum of 
the solid crust of the earth, there being nothing about it but 
diluvial gravel, sand, and loam. The stones are quarried in 
the open air and sent to this country in pieces, where they 
are sold at so much per pound, the ordinary selling price 
being for good sorts, about 5d. per pound. The mill-stone 
makers, in constructing the stones, which are often of large 
diameter, have to face a number of pieces, and assort them 
with great care ; they are then cemented together with 
plaster and secured with iron hoops or bonds. Grood burr, 
or, as they are often called, Prench stones, should exhibit a 
positively cellular texture, the ceUs being irregular in size 
and shape, and often cut transversely by thin plates of 
silex ; it should be exceedingly hard without being brittle ; 
the best stones are of a warm white or yellowish gTey, and 
sometimes a tint approaching to blue. 

The facing these stones is an important matter ; they are 
first worked down to an uniform level, and narrow shallov^- 
chases are cut, radiating, though not directly from the 
centre ; various arrangements of these channels (which are 
called furs) are made by different makers, but there is a 
fixed angle at which they are generally set out : they must 
on no account allow the centrifugal force to shoot the wheat 
through them to the outside, which I have known some 
arrangements of the burrs do ; for if this is the case the 
wheat cannot be evenly ground. The surface of the stones 
between the furs will of course in the process of grinding 
wear smooth and assume a polish ; as soon as this is apparent 
the face has to be chipped, or as it is called, sharpened or 



GEINDING-MILLS. 



87 



pricked. This is done with a tool called a mill-bill, which 
is a double steel wedged chisel, ground sharp on a flat stone ; 
this is placed in a handle, and the miller resting on the stone 
and supporting his hand on a cushion, keeps up a succession 
of sharp blows with the bill, making a small indented line 
or cut on the stone ; these pricks or marks being close 
together and all over the surface of the stone, produce a 
texture or tooth which is the grinding power. The quantity 
of meal a given pair of stones will grind, as well as the 
quality of the meal, will depend a good deal upon the state 
of dress or surface the stones may happen to be in while 
employed. 

To return to the operation of the grinding the wheat : 
after it is shaken from the spout it descends upon the centre 
of the lower stone, and passing outwards by the centrifugal 
force imparted to it by the rapid revolutions of the upper 
stone, it is ground between the two rubbing surfaces ; 
the same force drives it, when ground, to the outside of the 
stone. Both stones are covered with a wooden circular 
framing called the hoop, the sides of this keep the meal 
from rushing outwards ; between this hoop and the bed-stone 
is an aperture in the floor through which the meal passes 
by a shoot to the meal-bins below. 

"Wheat that has simply passed through the stones is in 
that state called meal, and not flour, till it has been dressed ; 
for in the state of meal it of course contains the husks of the 
grains of wheat broken and bruised, but still mixed up with 
the flour. It is necessary, therefore, that the meal should 
undergo some other process by which the husks will be 
extracted. This is done by machines called 

Dressing or Bolti7ig IfacTiines. — Bolting is the operation of 
separating by sifting the flner particles of the meal from the 
coarser. The machine consists of a cylinder formed of wood 
ribs ; upon these are strained a cloth as fine as wire gauze, and 
of different degrees of fineness ; within the cylinder, passing 



88 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



througli the centre, is a shaft, and upon this, at intervals, 
are placed radiating arms ; extending the length of the 
machine upon these arms are spars of wood to which 
brushes are fixed the whole of their length ; the cylinder 
is not set level, but at a certain inclination. The meal 
being admitted at the upper end of the cylinder, and a high 
degree of velocity being given to the brushes which revolve 
upon the horizontal shaft, the finer particles of the meal are 
forced through the finest gauze, and as it descends the 
sections of the cylinder, being covered with different cloths 
of different degrees of fineness, the particles of the meal are 
forced through the diiferent sized meshes of the screen 
according to their sizes ; the bran or husks, being carried 
right through the cylinder, and descend through an aperture 
at its lower end to a receptacle placed for them. 

This ingenious machine was invented and patented by 
John Milne, a.d. 1675, and is thus described: — "A machine 
for dressing flour of wheat or barley, which will make a 
more lively and better flour than bolting-cloths (which is 
the common method now used), from the same corn. It 
will dress all sorts of flour, and divide the sharps from the 
bran at one operation, and the person that attends it may 
easily make two sorts, or only one, by moving the partitions 
that divide the flour, which must be \\ithin the box or case 
in which the machine works ; and as flour is an article that 
loses every time it is stirred, it evidently appears that it 
dresses with less loss, because it does that business at one 
operation which, to be done with cloths in the common 
method now used, reqiiires several operations and several 
different cloths, and the trouble of changing them, they 
being obliged to change their cloths for diff"erent sorts." 

The patent was for brushes, either lying parallel to the 
axes of the cylinder, or formed like a screw or worm ; either 
the brushes to revolve in the cj'linder, or the cylinder to 
revolve also. 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



89 



Yery little alteration lias taken place in the construction 
of dressiug-macliines since this patent ; but a number of 
different plans are put forward by makers of corn-dressing 
machinery. 

A variety of patents have been obtained by various 
persons, at different times, for improvements in the con- 
struction of corn-mills, but scarcely any have come into use. 
"We will notice such as have been at all successful, and must 
pass over the infinite variety that have not. 

Grrinding with metal plates has been tried, and with some 
amount of success, by various persons, and Mr. Croskill's 
present eccentric mill seems likely to come into general use. 
The first of these mills worth notice is generally known as 
the French Military Mill, and was the invention of Francis 
Devreux, to whom a patent was granted for it in 1824. The 
principle is that of metallic groove plates turning on a 
vertical plane ; the grooves cut radiating from the centre of 
the plate. One of the plates is fixed to the end of the frame 
of the mill; the other revolves upon an axis fixed in the 
centre of the fixed plate at one end, and in the side of the 
frame in the other. 

The grain is fed through an aperture in the fixed plate, 
and having been subjected to the action of grinding between 
the two plates, passes through an opening at the bottom 
into a hopper, and thence to a bin. The manner in which 
the grinding plate was regulated in this mill was exceedingly 
well contrived, aud was, in fact, the novelty, for vertical 
mills had been used before. 

Sharp Sf Eoherts's Mill. — Messrs. Sharp & Eoberts 
received a patent for this mill, 1st Jan. 1834 ; it was the 
invention of a foreigner, and is novel and ingenious. 

The object sought to be obtained in this invention was 
to increase the triturating effect of ordinary grinders, by 
placing the lower stone, which in this case is the runner, 
eccentric with the bed-stone, which is here uppermost. 



90 



GUI^sDmG-MILLS. 



The corn descended by a fannel througli the centre of the 
upper stone or grinder (for the patent was for metal or stone 
grinders) into the lower, as in the ordinary mills, except 
that in the former case the pressure is upwards, while in 
the latter it is downwards. The lower stone or runner was 
supported on a vertical shaft driven in the ordinary manner, 
and the space between the upper and lower stone was 
regulated by a wheel and screw which lifted or depressed 
the cup in which the vertical shaft is placed. 'We shall have 
occasion hereafter to allude to this mill. 

In 1835 Mr. Herbert took out a patent for an exceedingly 
simple mill for grinding and dressing flour. The corn is 
placed in a hopper, through the centre of which is a vertical 
shaft ; on the top of this is placed, horizontally, a mitre 
wheel ; across the centre of this is placed a horizontal shaft, 
having a fly-wheel at one end, and at the other the wind 
with which the motion is imparted to the machine. The 
mitre-wheel on the vertical shaft gears with a corresponding 
one on the horizontal shaft, and this motion is given to the 
grinder below, and some brushes contained in a circular 
box, the bottom of which is covered with moveable wire 
gauze. The flour as it descends from the stones falls upon 
the gauze and passes through to its receptacle beneath, 
while the bran is driven outwards by the action of the 
brushes, falling into a screen of coarse wire, where the bran 
is separated from the pollard. 

Another mill invented by Mr. Herbert, consisted of 
vertical grinding plates placed at one end of a dressing 
machine, the grinding apparatus being much the same as 
Devreux's mill, the vertical grinder running upon the shaft 
of the dressing machine. This is an exceedingly compact 
and effective machine, the various qualities of the flour and 
offal being deposited in their respective compartments, 
under the machine. 

CroslcilVs Universal Mill. — This machine has lately been 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



91 



introduced by Mr. Croskill, of Beverley, Yorkshire, and bids 
fair to become one of the most extensively used and useful 
machines that the farmer can have upon his premises. 

The term " Universal Mill " is justly applied to this mill, 
for its grinding powers are almost unlimited ; it is said to 
grind equally well ever so fine or ever so coarse. I have 
seen it employed in grinding raw flints, coprolites, quartz, 
bones, charcoal, paint, all kinds of grain, merely bruising, or 
making good meal. I think this machine quite capable of 
effecting all the different operations ; grinding, crushing, 
bruising, or splitting, that may be required in the homestead; 



Fig. 29. 




CROSKILT/S UNIVERSAL MILL. 



the grinding-plates being varied according to the change 
of work. 

Pigs. 29, 30, and 31, represent an elevation and section 



92 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



of the mill, tlie principle of wMcli consists in an upper and 
lower grinding-plate running in the same direction, and at 
nearly equal velocities, lut not on tlie same centre ; hence it 
is sometimes called the eccentric mill. Grrooves are cut in 
the surface of the plate in circles radiating from the same 
centre; these circular edges act like revolving shears, 



I'^ig.SO.— Plan. 




cutting every way, and producing a most perfect grinding 
or cutting action. 

There is considerable similarity between this mill and 
the one patented by Sharp & Eoberts in 1834 : both are 
eccentric, but in Mr. Croskill's the action is much more 
perfect. This mill is exceedingly portable, and occupies 
very little space; In working, it should run to the right, 
and at a speed of not less than 300 revolutions per minute ; 
and it may, if necessary, be run up 800, An arrangement i 
is made to prevent accidents, by a guard lever which 
relieves the mill of any obstruction requiring greater 
power than crushing the material the mill is grinding. 
The weight is so arranged as to keep the plates up while' 
grinding. 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



93 



The distance between the plates is regulated by an 
adjusting screw, and the mill will thus grind coarser or 
finer, as may be required. 

In remoying the upper plate from the mill a lever is 

Fig. 31.— Section. 




placed in the hole in the ring which is on the top of the 
mill ; this screws the ring olf, and separates the plates : being 
a back-handed screw, for the purpose of keeping the ring on 
the tube while the mill is running. The following directions 
are given as to oiling the mill : — There are three principal 
places to be well supplied with oil. The first is the step in 
which the lower end of the shaft revolves ; the second is 
the box which holds the shaft in its upright position : this 
is done by pouring oil throu.gh a tube which leads to the 
• box • the third place is the upper bearing of the mill. In 
5 this is a large reservoir for holding oil ; it is poured in 
through a tube just over the bearing of the mill. After it 



GRINDING-IIILLS. 



is supplied Ydth oil, a stopper should be put in the opening 
to the tube to prevent the dust from getting in. The 
adjusting screw is held firmly in any position by a small 
screw against its side. The feeding is regulated by a shoe, 
acting against the tube of the upper plate, which causes the 
shoe to vibrate ; this with the side of hopper regulates the 
quantity put into the mill. The mill can be taken to pieces, 
cleaned, and the plates changed, if necessary, for coarser or 
finer grinding, in a few minutes. 

Westrops Conical Mill, fig. 32, represents a section of 
this mill. As Croshill's is, in some measure, a modification 
of Sharp & Eob arts' s mill, so is "Westrop's in a slight 
degree similar to one patented by Luke Herbert, in 1833, 
for both Herbert's and AYestrop's have double arrange- 
ments for grinding, with upper and lower pairs of stones. 
Mr. Herbert's remarks upon grinding are so judicious, and 
his object so fully explained, that it may be worth while to 
give them in his own words : — 

" In grinding wheat it has ever been the endeavour of 
millers to separate all the flour from the husk, without 
pressing it so hard as to ' kill it,' and without deteriorating 
its colour by making many minute 'greys.' This they have 
not been able to efiect in a convenient or profitable manner 
with the mills constructed on the usual plan, nor by any 
form of construction that has hitherto appeared. The 
reason is obvious : if the stones be brought so close 
together as is necessary to remove the firmly adhering 
portions of the fiour from the husk, the whole of it will be, 
in a great measure, ' killed ' and discoloured by the violent 
rubbing necessary to clean the bran ; on the other hand, if 
the stones are kept further apart, so as to ' grind high,' much 
of the flour will be left in the ofials and bran. 

" These disadvantages, which are inseparable from the old 
system, are completely obviated by the ' Patent Portable 
Progressive Corn Mill,' from the following causes : ' Instead 




WKSTUOr i C.NICAL :.:iLL. 



96 



GEINDING-MILLS. 



of employing only a single pair of stones of great weight 
and diameter, a progressive mill consists of tivo ])airs of 
stones of smaller diameter, with a flour -dresser between tJiem, 
into which the meal from the top pair of stones freely 
descends ; two-thirds or three-fourths of very superior strong 
flour is thus at once produced, while the unfinished portion 
falls into the eye of the second pair of stones underneath. 
This second pair of stones are set closer together than the 
first, to complete the softening of the remainder of the 
meal, which, in consequence of the bulk of the flour being 
separated from it, is much more easily operated upon. 
Underneath this pair of stones is placed a common dressing 
machine, into which the meal falls as it is ground, where the 
remaining flour, as well as the different qualities of ofi'al, are 
separated in the usual way." In Mr. Allen E,ansome's 
" Implements of Agriculture " will be found a drawing and 
description of this mill, as well as many others equally 
interesting. 

The principal diff"erence between Westrop's mill and 
Herbert's lies in the shape of the stones. In Herbert's 
they were flat surfaces, in "Westrop's they are conical, and 
not much different in principle from the ancient mill called 
the Pompeian mill, which ground by two conical stones, the 
lower fixed and the upper revolving upon it. It is 1700 
years since the city was burned by the ashes from Yesuvius, 
during a terrible eruption, but there is a conical mill perfect, 
(truly the ancients left us nothing to do in the way of 
mills) . TV^e extract the following description of Westrop's 
mill from the Illustrated London jN'ews " (supplement) : — 

" In presenting our readers with the subjoined plan of , 
"Westrop's Conical Hour Mill, we think it necessary to 
remark, that for the last three centuries our best mechanicp^ 
millwrights and engineers have been seeking some bette j 
method of grinding wheat than by the use of the antiquate (♦ 
horizontal mill stones. These stones are most of them froLi 



GEINDING-MILLS. 



97 



four to five feet diameter : and wheat passing between tlieui 
in the operation of being ground into meal, is subject to 
such an amount of heat by pressure and friction, as to 
extract from it, by evaporation, a very considerable portion 
of its nutritious qualities : the stones being horizontal, the 
delivery of the meal after grinding can only be effected by 
the extreme velocity with which the upper stone revolves. 
Lender the disadvantageous circumstances in which our 
older miUers have worked for so many years, we cannot 
but hail an invention, as effective as it is simple, which 
completely provides against the e\il3 which the old system 
is subject to. The improvement we refer to is the adoption 
of conical stones in Keu of horizontal ones, with a working 
surface of only 8 inches instead of 2 feet. By the first pair 
of stones the wheat is broken and delivered in a state of 
half-ground meal, unheated, and by the natural laws of 
gravity the flour is instantly passed through a wire cylinder 
fixed beneath, by the aid of brushes fixed upon the same 
shaft as the stones. The flour being thus instantly separated 
fi-om the unground meal, the latter passes down to the 
second pair of stones, also fixed upon the same shaft, and 
the grinding is then completed. Moreover, we cannot 
refrain from expressing our admiration of the concise and 
beautiful adjustment of the stones, as being on a good 
sound principle. The lower, or running stones are keyed 
upon the shaft, whilst the upper or stationary stones drop 
into a turned ring, and necessarily rise and faU upon four 
inclined planes, and are capable of regulation to the utmost 
nicety, thereby whoUy relieving the wheat from any undue 
pressure during the operation of grinding, whilst the weight 
upon the old system was equal to three quarters of a ton. 
Another feature of paramount importance is, that the 
conical miU can be diiven by less power than is requu^ed to 
Irive the horizontal ones, the former producing double the 
I quantity of work in the same period of time, ^^e have 
I VOL. n. £ 



GEINDIXG-lillLLS. 



pemsed certificates from several respectable bakers who 
bave used tbe flour produced by tbis method, which state 
that a sack of flour manufactured by the conical mill will 
produce from two to three 4ilb. loaves more than that which 
is made by any other mode of manufacture ; and they 
attribute this increase to the greater quantity of gluten 
and nutritious qualities retained in the flour, from its being 
so much less heated, the wheat passing over such a smaU 
surface of stone. 

Reference to Plate. 

A, Feed pipe. 

B, Chamber contaimng the feed regulator, 
c, Feed regulator. 

D, Chamber over the eye of the stones which receives the wheat 

from the regulator. 

E, Upper top mill stone (stationary). 
Upper runner. 

G, Lower top stone (stationary). 

H, Lower I'unner. 

I, Hollow spindle upon which the runners are hung. 

K, Bevil wheels and driving shaft, 

L, Iron frame sustaining the whole machine, 

M, Upright wire cylinder acting as a partial dressing machine. 

Brushes acting vi^on the wire cylinder M. 
o, Wooden case enclosing stones and cylinder, to the bottom of 

which the spout is fixed, 
p, Pipe to convey cold air into the face of the stones, the inside of 

the hollow spindle I conducting the air to the stones. 
Q, Eegulator for adjiisting the upper pau' of stones. 
E, Regulator for adjusting the lower pair of stones. 

Garrett's Stone 31111. — This is a most excellent mill for 
agricultural purposes, where a large quantity of work is 
required to be done in grinding wheat and other farm 
produce. The stones are 32 inches in diameter, and enclosed 
in a metal and wood framing. The top stone is himg on an 
upright shaft, and worked by a pair of bevil wheels, from 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



9.9 



which the attachment may be made to either steam, water, 
or horse-power. Its construction admits of the stones 
being readily adjusted for grinding wheat, barley, beans, 



Fig. 33. 




Garrett's stone mill. 



or peas. The framework of the mill is most excellently con- 
structed of timber of large scantling, and perfectly secured 
by iron bolts. It is in every respect a first-rate mill, 
and one that we specially recommend for farms of any 
magnitude. 

Messrs. Clayton Shuttle worth's mill is similar to Messrs. 
Garrett's, only the frame is made of iron instead of wood ; 



100 



GEIXDI^'G-iIILLS. 



the stones being supported on a handsome iron cylinder of 
good design, and inside wliicli the driying gear is placed. 



Fig. 34. 




CLAYTOX SHUTTLEWOETH'S STOXE MILL. 



It is in every respect a first-rate roill, and, as a piece of 
workmanship, does infinite credit to the firm that has 
produced it. They received a prize from the Eoyal Agri- 
cultural Society, at Exeter, 1850. At the Norwich meeting, 
1849, the judges, after it had competed ^ith thirty-two 
other mills, made the following report : — 

" The portable mills, for grinding fine meal, did not 
possess much merit, with the exception of Messrs. Clayton 
Shuttleworth's, to which we awarded the prize. It both 
kibbled and ground in a superior style to any of the others, 
grinding barley perfectly well at the rate of six bushels per 
hour, without much heating the meal. It was upon the 



GRINDIXG-MILLS. 



101 



same j^rluciple as fixed mill-stones usually are, and well got 
up in point of workmansliip, and took little room, so that 
we consider it a valuable implement. The stones are 2 feet 
8 inches diameter, fixed in a metal cylindrical frame, 3 feet 
6 inches diameter, and 4 feet 7 inches high from the floor to 
the top of the bed stone. The runner is driven by the 
upright spindle, which is driven by a paii' of bevil wheels at 
the foot, one geared with wood. The pulley shown on the 
outside is for running the strap which may be taken direct 
from the engine driving wheel; the small hand wheel in 
front is for adjusting the stones to their faces, at such 
distances as they may grind the finest flour, or only kibble 
beans, peas, or oats. Six bushels of barley per hour may be 
ground to fine meal by this mill." 

The mills we have hitherto described are all of much too 
large and expensive a character to be used on small farms, 
and yet small farms require exactly the same operation to be 
performed as the large ones. Small farms are at a great 
disadvantage in this respect, as they cannot get the work 
done so cheaply as their more fortunate brethren, yet have 
to meet on equal terms in market ; they are, therefore, 
obliged to buy several small mills to eftect the different 
objects. These are of immense variety, and made of iron, 
and at a very cheap rate, and sold by all agricultural 
machine makers. 

It is a most desirable thing to have a low priced mill that 
shall, by an alteration of grinding parts, perform the different 
operations of grinding meal for feeding stock (flour is better 
not attempted), and crushing, kibbling, splitting, or bruising, 
as may be required. Several attempts have been made, and, in 
some cases, with considerable success ; and, in one I have 
remarked, it has answered capitally. It is manufactured 
by Barrett, ExaU, and Andrewes, of Heading, and the 
difficulty we have noticed is overcome by having a double 
feed of exceedingly simple contrivance. 



102 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



Pig. 35 represents the mill, wliicli consists of three rollers 
parallel to each other, the two front ones slightly grooved ; 
these are for crushing malt, oats, barley, and linseed, and 
are adjusted by two hand-screws. The back roller is cut 



Fig. 35 




BAr>r>ETT, EXALL, AXD AXDUEWES" PAHAGOX MILL. 



for beans, and works against a plate as in the post mill ; 
thus there are two separate mills in one, each fitted 
for its particular Idnd of work, and independent of each 
other. 

An iron shifting-plate regulates the feed to each opening 
as it is required. 

This mill will crush about four bushels of barley or oats 
per hour, or about one of linseed and six of beans. 

Wood's Crusliing Mill. — In this case the crushing is 



GRINDING-MILLS. 



103 



performed by means of a large wheel four or five feet 
in diameter, acting against one of as many inches. It is 
adapted for a variety of work. As it is rather a favourite 
mill several varieties are manufactured b}^ different houses, 
but all using the large wheel against the small one. 



Fig. 36. 




DEAXE, DRAY, AND DEAXE'S DOMESTIC FLOUR-MILL. 



Eig. 36 represents a small hand- machine called the 
domestic flour-mill, well adapted for emigrants and cot- 
tagers. A small, convenient, and cheap flour-mill, has long 
been a desideratum. Messrs. Dean seem to have supplied 
it ; for this httle mill does its work in a very superior 
manner, the meal being perfectly soft and fine as from a 
large mill ; it also di^esses and separates the flour, seconds, 
and bran, at the same time, and in a manner we should not 



104 



GRINDIXG-MILLS. 



have expected in so small a maclime. It is constructed in 
an exceedingly compact form and is very portable. 

Crushing-mills. — A yariety of machines are constructed 
for crushing linseed and other grain, as well as for breaking 
the cake, either as food for stock or as manure. 

Messrs. Garrett have produced a powerful machine for 
the purpose of breaking cakes of anv size or thickness : it 
is fitted with two sets of barrels, which may be adjusted as 
required, to break cake into different sized pieces for bul- 
locks or sheep, or powder for manure. 

A screen is fixed between the barrels, through which as 
much of the cake as is sufilciently broken in passing through 
the first is sifted, to ensure uniformity of size, and avoid the 
unnecessary labour occasioned by that which is sufficiently 
broken passing through the bottom rollers with that which 
is not. 

Cake-breakers are made in a simple and cheap manner by 
nearly all implement-makers, and the action is in nearly all 
cases effected by two grooved or notched rollers. 

Bone-mills. — The steading which has a properly fixed 
steam-engine, has a great advantage over those which have 
not, as there are a number of operations that can be laid on 
the engine that could not well be effected by horse-power. 
Among these, the grinding of bones for manure is an im- 
portant one, bone-dust having become one of the favoiu?ite 
and most generally used artificial manures, and should be 
purchased by the agriculturist in a state that he can him- 
self judge of the quality of the article he is purchasing. 
If he buys bone ready ground he whl have great diffi- 
culty in doing this. It is, therefore, necessary that he 
should buy them unbroken and grind them himself. 
Experiment, it is said, proves that bones that have been 
boiled are just as good for the land as bones upon which the 
fatty, fleshy, and fibrous matter remains. This I do not 
beheve, if the result be taken at the end of several croppings 



GEIXDIXG-MILLS. 



105 



but I do believe tbat the boiled bones are taken up as food 
by the plants much quicker than the others ; and, as a quick 
return is most wanted by the farmer, there is no doubt that 
boiled bones ground into powder, and drilled in with the 
seed, is the best possible method of using this raluable and 
highly fertilising manure. I have alluded to the using green 
or boiled bones because (admitting the necessity of the 
steading being provided with a bone-mill) a very much 
simpler form of mill will do for the dry bones than would be 
required for the green. 

Bone-crushing is at present done quite as a separate 
business, and the mills are large and expensive ; but I see 
no reason why a small bone-mill should not be constructed 
adapted to large steadings. At present I do not remember 
to have seen such an one, but possibly they may be to 
be had. 

Bone-grinding is effected by passing the bones through a 
series of toothed rollers arranged in pairs, the rollers being 
toothed or serrated in different degrees of fineness, and 
riddles are provided for sifting the bones into sizes, and they 
are then sold as inch, three-quarters, half-inch, and dust. 

It is in the latter state that the farmer is most open to 
be cheated by dishonest dealers ; and, therefore, half-inch 
bones are oftenpreferred, not because they are so economical 
or so immediate in their action as drilled bone-dust, but 
because the buyer can better tell the quality of the article. 
A variety of different materials are employed to adulterate 
bone-dust : such as the refuse lime of tan-works, after it 
has been employed in removing wool and hair from the skins. 
This is passed through the rollers along with the bones, and 
as it has a strong pungent smell it is easily mistaken. 
Doubtless this material is a fertiliser, but if it is it can only 
be in a smaU. degree, and is certainly a robbery on the 
purchaser of bone-dust. Old mortar, soap-boilers' waste, 
saw-dust, slaked lime, rotten wood, and a variety of other 

F 3 



106 



GEINDING-MILLS. 



materials are used to deceive and rob tlie farmer : hence 
I conceive a small cheap bone-miU to be a necessary machine 
to farms of any magnitude. 

Cyder-mills. — The manufacture of cyder, in the apple- 
growing countries, as Herefordshire, Devonshire, &c., is an 
operation of great importance, and conducted with all the 
care and attention that is bestowed upon any other process 
for converting the produce of the land into a marketable 
commodity.- Cyder is made from the juice of fruit expressed 
by the action of a powerful mill. 

Cyder-mills are often constructed by setting up a single 
or double edge runner on either side of an upright shaft, 
which is turned by a horse working in a track ; but several 
cyder-mills have been constructed on the principle of screw- 
presses. A silver medal was awarded to Mr. Alexander 
Dean, of Birmingham, for a new cyder-mill at the Eoyal 
Agricultural Society's Meeting at Derby. It was the inven- 
tion of Mr. Ashwood, of Bretforton, Worcestershire, and is 
thus described in the Journal: — "This implement is, in 
fact, a crusher or squeezer, being furnished with a piston 
worked horizontally in a substantial wooden box, from which 
the apples are discharged in a state of pulp. Mr. Ashwood 
describes its mode of use thus : ' I drive it by a one or two- 
horse-power used for chaff- cutting, &c., and place it as near 
the cellar as convenient. It requires two women — one to 
carry the fruit from the heap and throw it into the hopper, 
the other to regulate the feeding with her hands ; two men 
to remove the pulp and press it through hah' cloths, the 
same as with the old mills, and one to carry and tun the 
cyder. The quantity of fruit it is capable of reducing varies 
according to its ripeness, from 300 to 400 bushels per day, 
and produces from 800 to 1000 gallons of juice. Several of 
my neighbours have already bespoken the use of my mill 
for the present year, who have seen the efficiency of its 
work, and the peculiar way in whicli the cyder keeps from 



GRTNDING-J[ILLS. 



107 



it. I also tried it last winter for pulping turnips and 
potatoes, for pig-feeding, and found it most economical. The 
juice is not squeezed out by it, but tbe pulp is beaten up to 
about tbe consistence of paste, wbicb I mix with barley or 
bean meal, and find the pigs feed much faster than when 
mixed with water.' This new machine was very well got 
up by Mr. Dean, and accommodated to manual as weU as 
animal or steam-power. It has been represented to the 
judges that the grating of apples is much preferred in 
America for cyder-making to the old rolling-mill ; the 
saccharine matter being much better evolved by grating, 
and the pips in a great measure reduced." 

In EuUerton's Agricultural Encyclopaedia, I find the 
following description of one of these grating cyder-mills 
exhibited at the Massachusetts Agricultural Society ; it is 
thus described : " It has a wooden cylinder, upon the surface 
of which nails are fixed ; the heads are sharp upon the edges 
and project above the cylinder about one-eighth of an inch. 
The apples are filled into a hopper placed over the cylinder, 
and led into a narrow cavity at the upper side of it. The 
cylinder is mounted on a high frame, its axes being placed 
in composition boxes. A rapid revolution is produced by 
connecting it with a horse-mill by belts or bands. The 
apples are reduced to a fine pomace, grated, not pressed. 
It performed well in the presence of the committee, and 
grated a barrel of russet apples in 1 minute 34 seconds." 



108 



OIL-CAKE PRESS. 



OIL- CAKE PEESS. 

This, like the bone-mill, is a most important machine ; for 
the cattle-feeder is cheated more in this article than any 
other. The common oil-cake sold for feeding stock is often 
adulterated Tvith all sorts of rubbish. It ought to consist 
entirely of oil seeds, freed from a large proportion of their 
oil. "When farmers have erected oil-expressing machinery, 
and made their own cake, an immense advantage has always 



Fig. 37. 






Pi 











LI Lii I 



BLUNDELL S HTDEAULIC CAKE AXD OIL PBESSES. 



been gained. And now that the culture of flax is likely to 
become general, the use of cake will also be more common, 
and the manufacture of it on their own premises be the 
common practice, as they will be enabled to get a much 



SACK-HOISTIXG MACHINEEY. 



109 



richer cake for the same inonej. At present, the cake- 
presser's -^hole object is to extract as much oil as possible 
from the seed, for he gets just the same price from the farmer 
whether he extracts little or much ; and certainly much of 
the cake imported into this country is so squeezed that little 
is left for the stock : and, not content with extracting every 
particle of oil, they recommence with downright adultera- 
tion, making the cakes up again for market. 

Oil-cake presses are manufactured by Croskill, and most 
large concerns. 'Fig. 37 represents the patent hydraulic 
presses of Martm Samuelson & Co., of Hull. One press 
holds ten cakes of 31b. each, and the other four cakes of 
81b. each. 

The presses are easily fixed, and the wear and tear is 
trifling, being confined chiefly to the leathers of the pumps 
and the cylinder rams. 

The pumps are made of gun metal, and, as well as the 
presses, are of first-rate workmanship. The great advantage 
of these presses over the ordinary stampers is in the increased 
quantity of oil extracted, and the extra amount of work that 
can be done. 

SXCK-HOISTI^G MACHINEET. 

, Presuming farmeries to be constructed in their arrange- 
ments something more nearly to mills and manufactories, 
I there wiU be required an easy method of hoisting sacks and 
; other weights from the lower to the upper floors, or granaries. 
' A common crane and windlass is often used, but this is an 
I exceedingly slow process, and not always convenient. 
I In flour-mills it is necessary to have the means of hoisting 
ijwith rapidity and ease the sacks of corn from the lower floors 
I to the higher, for the purpose of emptying it into the hoppers 
1 for supplying the stones ; or to raise the meal from the bins 
ion the lower floors to the upper, to be passed through the 
I dressing-machine ; and for this purpose a machine, called a 



110 



SACK-HOISTIXG JIACHINEHY. 



sack-tackle, or hoist, is used. It is exceedingly simple, and 
answers the purpose admirably. 

Sack-tackles are constructed in several different ways, but 
tlie one most in use is as follows : — 

In the roof of the mill (though it might be in any other 
convenient place) is placed a wooden framework, moving 
with hinges at one end ; across this frame is placed a shaft, 
or spindle, having upon it a wheel, or pulley, and a barrel to 
carry the chain or rope ; in a line with the pulley, in some 
direction, and upon a shaft always kept running, is placed 
another pulley; over these two pass a strap, made so loose 
that the pulley in motion does not give motion to the other. 
At one end of the sack-tackle frame is a piece of iron, set up 
with a strong spring to press it forward, and having a pro- 
jecting notch or ledge on the face of it. We have before 
observed that one end of the frame was moveable ; when a 
sack is required to be hoisted, one end of the wooden frame 
and with it the shaft carrying the pulley and chain-barrel is 
lifted ; the strap then works tight on both the running and the 
other pulley, and the chain or rope works round the barrel. 
The frame is lifted by a cord running through a small pulley 
above, and passing through a hole in each floor beside the 
sack-traps, through which the sacks are hoisted ; wlien the 
frame is lifted by this cord, it passes up the face of the iron 
spring till it arrives at the notch, upon which it rests. The 
cord by which the frame is lifted is called the striking-in 
line. As long as the frame remains on the notch, the barrel 
continues to revolve and wind up the chain. There of course 
requires another arrangement to again slack the strap and 
stay the action of the winding barrel ; this is effected by 
simply having a line to draw back the spring, upon which the 
frame descends to its former position. This line is carried 
down through the floors beside the other, and is called the 
" striking-out line." At the lower end of the chain is a 
ring large enough to admit of the slack being passed through 



THE CHAFF-CUTTER. 



Ill 



double ; a loop is thus formed which takes hold of the neck 
or tie of the sack ; the striking-in line is pulled with a jerk, 
and the sack ascends to the required height ; the striking- 
out line is then pulled, and the sack drops on to the floor 
above the traps. 

In some sack-hoists the strap is tightened by a lever 
pressing against it ; the frame and barrel then being 
stationary, nothing taking place but the tightening of the 
strap by the lever. In others, a hollow cone is used, working 
on to a solid one, which is always moving ; but the ordinary 
one we have attempted to describe. 



CHAPTER X. 



MACHINES USED IN PEEPARING FOOD FOR STOCK. 

The Chaff-cutter. — This machine has only been introduced 
of late years in an effective state, although the cutting of 
plants and leaves as food for stock is spoken of by the 
earliest writers. The chafF-catter first used in this country, 
and only introduced so lately as the close of the last century, 
consists of a plain box or trough, placed on four legs, and 
fitted with a large knife or blade, one end of which was 
secured to the end of a lever, and the other had attached to 
it a handle. The material to be cut was placed in the trough, 
and pressed, in small quantities, forward by means of a fork 
secured to the fore-end of the box by a chain, where it was 
cut off in determinate lengths by means of the knife, which 
the operator worked with one hand while he forced the 
straw, &c., forward, to be cut with the other. This plan 
will be recognised as the old well-known hand Qhafi*-box, 
though . now superseded by better contrivances ; it was 
;^ nevertheless an ingenious and effective machine. 



112 MACHIXES rSED IN PEEPAEIXG FOOD lOP. STOCK. 

The first chafi'-ciitting machine deserving the name \ras 
invented hj E.obert Salmon, of Woburn, many of whose 
inventions in connection with agriculture have since been 
adopted and carried out with great success. This machine 
of Salmon's was a large and cumbrous affair, but was, 
nevertheless, effective. It consisted in placing between the 
bellies of two wheels, and thereby connecting them together, 
a series of flat blades, the edges of which were fixed at an 
angle of 45 degrees from the plane of the wheel's motion. 
The knives in revolving are brought against the material to 
be cut at an acute angle, so preventing anything like a 
sudden blow. The straw was fed through a trough, and 
between two spiked roUers tuimed by ratchet wheels on the 
outside, and so arranged that the straw should be at rest 
while the knife was passing through it. It is quite evident 
that this is the original of a very large class of macliines 
until very lately in common use. 

Pasmore's engine was only a modification of Salmon's, 
which it considerably improved. In this case the knives 
were reduced in size, and the whole simplified, the feed 
better arranged, and the whole machine constructed in a 
much more mechanical manner. 

Lester's Macliine. — This was patented in 1800, and upon 
the principle now generally adopted, that is the placing the 
knife upon a fly-wheel. Trom this point, the chaff-machine 
has been rapidly improving : the earliest made had an end- 
less web of cloth passing over two rollers, and carrying 
forward the straw, which was compressed by a heavy block 
of wood ; both this and the endless cloth are now dispensed 
with. It was an effective enguie, but consumed great power 
in working. 

HeppenstalVs Cliaff Engine.— ^lLl\ns, was patented in 1818, 
and was- on the same cutting principle as Lester's, but 
several improvements had been made in the feed ; it con- 
sisted in the application of a worm to tiu'n the two feeding- 



THE CHAFF- CUTTEE. 



113 



roUers, wliich convej the straw to be cut to the two knives, 
whicli are placed upon two arms of the fly-wheel. 

Bansome ^ Mcn/s Chaff Engine. — Lester's principle 
was entirely completed and carried out by Mr. May, and is 
thus described by Mr. Eansome in his valuable work, " The 
Implements of Agriculture : " — " The ChaiF Engine patented 
by jMr. C. May is a successful attempt at combining the 
advantages of some of the older plans with the power of 
altering the length of the cut ; and also avoiding the diffi- 
culty of supplying the material to be cut, so evenly, that it 
may be dehvered at the mouth pressed so close as to stand 
against the knife. The alteration of this length is accom- 
plished by adding a second shaft, placing the screw which 
impels the roUers upon one shaft, the wheel carrying the 
knives upon the other, and connecting the two by toothed 
wheels of varying diameters, and capable of change at 
pleasure ; this produces a variable rate between the velocity 
of the rollers and the revolutions of the knife-wheel; and 
the hay or straw is cut into lengths proportionate to such 
variation. By means of a plate called the presser the 
material is secured close together, and this plate, in the 
patent engine, instead of being fixed to the support of the 
upper roller, has a motion round the axis of it ; and thus, if 
the feed is thin, the presser follows down, or if thick, rises 
up, so that at all times the proper pressure is supplied." 
The parts being strongly constructed, a considerable velocity 
may be given to the wheel carrying the knives. This engine 
is the one from which all the modern machines have been 
more or less copied. Messrs. Eansomes have not been 
behind-hand in improving their machine; since its first 
introduction many important alterations have been made to 
make it cut inferior material, and prevent it choking, as 
well as to enable the machine to be run at a higher velocity. 

The TJhy Chaff-cutter. — This machine was patented by 
Lord Ducie, in connexion with Clyburn & Euddiug, 



114 MACHINES USED IX PEEPARIXG FOOD POE- STOCK. 

engineers, of TJley. It is said to have performed its work 
admirably on the trial ; its construction is thus described 
by the judges of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, Edinburgh : 
— " The cutter consists of two series of thin blades or knives, 
with serrated edges, coiled spirally round a horizontal 
rotatory cylinder, and presenting their edges at an angle to 
it ; the one series is coiled from left to right, and the other 
from right to left, meeting in the middle of the cylinder : an 
unbroken continuity of cutting action is thus attained. 
A pair of feed-rollers is driven fi'om the spmdle of the cutting 
cylinder, which again gives motion to an endless cloth, by 
which the supply is maintained. The speed of the feeding- 
rollers is regulated by a highly ingenious and simple appli- 
cation of the worm and wheel. The wheel fixed on the 
roller is so constructed as to admit of being driven by worms, 
with threads jarying from one to four ; thus by changing 
the worm on the axis of the cyUnder (which is also accom- 
plished in a dexterously mechanical manner) the hay or 
straw is cut into lengths of from a quarter of an inch to one 
inch. This machine may be worked by manual, animal, or 
steam-power with equal convenience. Notwithstanding the 
favourable impression it made on first being introduced, it 
has not come into general use. 

Guillotine Chaff-cutter. — This ingenious machine is the 
invention of Islv. Gillett, of Brailes, near Shipston-on-Stour, 
Warwickshire. (See fig. 38). It is a strong, weU-arranged 
machine, and I have seen some that have been at work for 
a long time, giving great satisfaction : the whole machine is 
constructed of iron, runs very steady, and is exceedingly 
neat in appearance. 

Co-rue's Chaff Macliine. — This form of chaff" machine seems 
to be preferred to all others ; sl great number of prizes have 
been awarded to it by the E^oyal Agricultural Society, as 
well as many local societies ; it is manufactured under 
arrangement by several other makers, Messrs. Barrett, 




corne's chaff-cutter. 



116 MACHINES USED IN PREPARING POOD EOR STOCK. 



Exall & Andrewes, Hornsby, and others ; it is fitted up 
with double gearing, to be worked either by two men or 
machinery; it cuts with three knives, breadth of cut 12 
inches, depth 3i inches, and makes one length of 4 inches 
for litter ; a pair of rollers are also added to regulate the 
entrance of the material to the front rollers, next the cut, 
so getting rid of the danger likely to accrue to the persons 
feeding, by getting then" hands entangled in the hay or 
straw when the machine is running at a high velocity. It 
cuts gorse or furze well ^ of an inch long. 

Eichmond & Chandler make an excellent machine, with 
a most effective feeding apparatus, consisting of toothed 
rollers working into each other in such a manner as to 
ensure a regular feed, and prevent all choking ; it is fitted 
upon a gothic pattern frame, securely made, and is in every 
respect an excellent machine. 

Messrs. Barrett, of Eeading, construct an exceedingly 
weU-framed chaff-cutter, adapted to run at high velocities, 
entirely constructed of iron, and well arranged. The great 
difficulty in constructing an efficient chaff-cutter consists in 
getting it to feed equally well with all descriptions of 
material. A person unacquainted with these machines, and 
judging only from their performances at the shows, would 
be very liable to be deceived, as the material they are 
generally exhibited cutting is chosen for the special pur- 
pose, long, dry, crisp straw or clover ; the very worst 
appear effective when so employed ; yet when badly got or 
damp hay is substituted it immediately makes its appear- 
ance where it should not, upwards and sideways, through 
the collar. If the machine is still kept going when this [ 
occurs, that portion of the machine which holds the straw , 
to its work -v^^ll be broken off, and as it is cast-iron cannot ' 
be repaired — the machine must remain idle till a new one 
is obtained from the maker. All badly-contrived feeding 
rollers will allow damp hay or any similar material to turn ■ 



THE CHAFF- CUTTEE. 



117 



round just before it is delivered to the knife, in passing 
round or between the feed-roUers and the end of the box ; 
the reverse way, it meets the material coming in the oppo- 
site direction ; a few turns more, and a general choke takes 
place ; another turn or two, and some portion of the 
machine gives way. I have seen this happen over and over 
again when the common cheap machines have been attached 
to an engine of any kind, and an attempt made to run them 
at high velocities. If a large quantity of chaff is consumed, 
and the machine is to be worked by steam or water-power, 
it is always best to get a large well-framed machine adapted 
to the purpose. Such are made by aE. the principal makers, 
and if they guarantee them they may be relied on. 

Messrs. Barrett have attempted to get a better feed in a 
totally different manner, by dispensing with the feed-rollers 
altogether, and substituting in their place a double endless 
chain, with circular bars extending across the box between 
the chains. The chains work over pinions at each end, and 
are in contact with the material to be cut their whole 
length, which is the improvement, as the rollers only hold 
between points. This machine was exhibited at the Smith- 
field Club Show last Christmas, and is the latest improve- 
ment I know of in connection with chaff machines. 

It has long been a desideratiun to have a machine that 
shall cut long lengths of straw for litter in an efacient 
manner ; and though so many machines are advertised to 
do it, I do not see any that I could recoromend for that 
purpose. I remember to have seen one a few years since, 
I think made by Smith, of Stamford, in which a moveable 
j mouth-piece in front of the box carried forward the length 
I of straw to be cut. This machine seemed to answer very 
I well ; but I have entirely lost sight of it, so I presume it did 
not answer. In Scotland, a machine is used for cutting 
. straw, called the Canadian straw-cutter, and does its work 
very well ;— two rollers, one plain and the other fitted with 



118 MACHINES USED IX PEEPARING TOOD EOR STOCK. 



knives, set lengthways of tlie roller, and radiating from 
its centre. These knives, as the roller revolves, press upon 
the cylinder below, and cut the straw into lengths equal to 
the distance between the knives. The feed is in the ordinary 
manner, through a box — the two rollers drawing it forward, 
without any other assistance. 

I have heard this machine spoken very highly of as 
working very light, and cutting well ; but I cannot consider 
the principle of cutting by pressure nearly so good as to 
give the knife a drawing motion, as is effected in every other 
machine. The lower roller must wear out rapidly, and 
there must be some difficulty in taking out the cutters to be 
sharpened or repaired. 

TUEXIP-CUTTEKS. 

The general culture of the turnip in this country is of so 
late a date, that this machine must, of necessity, be one of 
recent invention. "When turnips began first to be used as 
food for sheep, a peculiar shaped hoe was all that was 
employed to cut them up into small dimensions. When 
they became a part of the food of the fattening oxen tied up 
in stalls, or of cows, a sort of chopj)er was used ; — two or 
three turnips being placed on a block, the upper surface of 
which was slightly bevilled, and the turnips chopped into 
irregular pieces, as they rolled down the face of the block. 
These turnip-chopping blocks are still used by some old- 
fashioned people in the upper parts of Norfolk. 

There are three different forms of tiu-nip-cutters in use at 
the present time ; one is the placing knives on a disc ; 
another, knives placed on a cylinder ; and lastly, knives 
working through a grating by a crank motion. 

In the first form, a series of knives are placed in the 
face of an iron disc by screws. The turnips are placed in a 
hopper set at an angle, so that they may press by their own 
weight against the disc. 



TUENIP-CUTTERS. 



119 



The knives are of two kinds ; one flat, and extending 
from nearly the axle to the outer edge of the disc, and at a 
distance from it equal to the thickness the slice of the turnip 
is required to be. 

If only slices are required of the full breadth of the 
turnip at the part it is cut, then this knife is used by itself; 
but if it is necessary that the turnip should be cut into 
sections the cross way of the cut, as for sheep, then a series 
of small knives, projecting from the face of the disc at right 
angles, are placed at distances apart equal to the width 
required. The pieces, after being cut, fall into the receptacle 
beneath. 

Sometimes the disc is set horizontally, and the hopper 
above. I have seen very good turnip-cutters constructed 
upon this plan. Occasionally the disc is attached to a 
barrow or a cart. 

The turnip-cutter that seems to be most approved of is 
known as Gardner's, and is now manufactured chiefly by 
Messrs. Samuelson, of Banbury, and is shown in figs. 40 
and 41. 

Fig. 40.— Section tlirongli tlie barrel and hopper. 



120 MACHINES rSED IX PEEPAEIN'& EOOD EOE STOCK. 

Eig. 41 represents a general view of Gardner's macliine ; 
and fig. 40 a section tkrougli the cylinder and hopper, 
showing the cutting principle. Cjliiider tiu'nip-cutters 



Fig. 41. 




SAMTTELSOX'S IMPEOVED GAEDyER"S TURXIP-CUTTIXa AXD SLICIXG ilACHIXE. 



were in nse in Scotland long before Mr. Grardner's patent, 
but they only cut large and very unequal slices. 'The knife 
in them extended entirely across the cylinder with an 
unbroken edge, and had the cross knives placed under the 
slicing knife, of which there were two, and raised above the 
cylinder the thickness of the shce cut. 

Gardner's improvement consisted in the arrangement of 
the face of the cutting-knife into sections of a width equal 
to the required cut of the root, — ^each knife cutting on the 



TURNIP-CUTTEES. 



121 



front and side edge at right angles with it, and placed one 
above another till they meet in the centre, the angles of the 
knife retiring en echelon from the front to the centre. Two 
of these knives are placed on the cylinder in the cut, and 
against the front plate is shown a ledge, which causes the 
last piece of the turnip to be cut instead of falling through 
unslit. This is a recent improvement of the Messrs. 
Samuelson ; and with some minor improvements in the 
detail, they have rendered it a perfect machine for its 
purpose ; as it is a matter of great importance that the 
whole of the turnips should be cut into equal sized pieces, 
as nearly as possible, whatever the size may be, and not 
pass a large portion of thin edges or little angular pieces 
of shces ; as when this is the case, great waste must, of 
necessity, ensue. 

Messrs. Burgess & Key, of Newgate- street, are the 
patentees of a turnip-cutting machine, which I think an 
exceedingly good one. It is of very simple design, and is 
effective. It cut for sheep 3^ bushels in two minutes, at 
the trial of implements at the Grreat Exhibition, and was 
awarded a prize-medal. Two or three sizes can be cut at 
the same time, and each size be deposited in its separate 
receptacle ; and a boy can work it. 

AU other roots, as mangold-wurzel, carrots, &c., and also 
chicory, may be cut with it equally well. 

The principle upon which the machine acts is something 
similar to the machine formerly used in Scotland, and called 
the gridiron turnip-cutter ; but only like in principle, as 
that was an exceedingly clumsy and rude affair, while this is 
an effective machine. In a long horizontal hopper are 
placed the turnips to be cut, and through the bottom of the 
hopper are a series of knives and guards, arranged to cut 
the different sizes. Motion is given by means of a crank to 
the knives in the hopper. This machine is well adapted for 
performing a large quantity of work in a short time ; and is 

VOL. n. G 



122 MACHI"N'ES USED IX PEEPAEIXG EOOD FOR STOCK. 

not more expensive than other machines of the same 
capabilities. 

GOESE-MACHIXE. 

Gorse, whins, or furze, as it is occasionally called, is an 
exceedingly valuable substance as food for stock. 

In the northern districts of ales it ^las long been used 
as food for horses and other animals, aiid with milch cows 
the most satisfactory results have been obtained, as it 
imparts to the milk and butter a fine colour and rich flavour, 
and cows are said to be more profitable when fed with it, 
than with hay or tuimips ; but it is as food for horses that 
it is mostly used in AYales ; it is said that in Carnarvon and 
Anglesey, and in a portion of the county of Denbigh, four- 
fifths of the farmers, innkeepers, and public carriers, who 
keep horses, are in the habit of using gorse as provender to 
a great extent, and with signal advantage. 

Notwithstanding the acknowledged value of this plan, 
comparatively speaking, it is scarcely introduced in England 
as food for stock : occasionally some gentleman tries it, but 
tenant farmers generally have not adopted it, and chiefly 
on account of the difficulty of bruising the prickles of the 
plant, in which the nutritive juices are enclosed. In the 
localities mentioned, various plans are adopted, the most 
simple being that of the chopping block and mallet. The 
block is set up perpendicularly, and an iron hoop fastened 
round the top, above its sm-face, and about two-thirds 
round. The mallet is a round piece of wood nine inches 
long, and foiu* and a half diameter ; one end is armed 
with a knife, and the other end is studded with nails, the 
knife projecting from the wood about three laches ; both ends 
are secured by an iron band. The gorse is placed upon the 
block and chopped with the maUet into short lengths, after 
which it is bruised with the other end of the same instrument. 

Another plan, on a larger scale, is to subject the gorse to 



GORSE-MACHINE. 



123 



the action of edge stones, similar to a cyder mill. The gorse 
is most effectually bruised by this means. A regular mill 
is sometimes constructed in the following manner, and 
similar to a bark mill. Three or four rows of strong angular 
pieces of wrought-iron are fixed in a horizontal shaft ; the 
rows are generally from two and a half feet to three in 
length ; the teeth in the rows are about six inches long, clear 
of the shaft, which is placed inside a strong wooden box, 
formed of three wooden beams, each fitted with a row 
of teeth, similar to those on the shaft between which 

i the latter pass as the shaft revolves, crushing the gorse most 
effectually, by reducing it to a pulp. 

Wedlake's gorse-machine is very like this, only on a 
small scale. Decidedly the best machine hitherto invented 

I is the one manufactured by Barrett & Exall. I have tried 



Fig. 42. 




this machine myself, and can testify to its thoroughly 
accomplishing its purpose, the gorse, after having passed 
through, being quite soft like moss, and cattle that may 



124 MACHINES USED IN PEEPARING FOOD FOE STOCK. 



never have tasted it before eat it without the least incon- 
venience. Eig. 42 represents the exterior view of the 
machine ; in its action it first cuts the gorse as chaff, by 
means of six knives placed on a drum, and afterwards com- 
presses it between two rollers. 

Potato- Separator. — This is a machine used for the purpose 
of separating potatoes into si^es ready for sale, and used for 
the different purposes to which the root is applied. 

It is an exceedingly useful machine on those farms where 
potatoes are largely grown, and getting them properly 
sorted will ensure the farmer a greater profit than selling 
them mixed large and small, as the difference of price is 
greater for the superior class than is allowed for to the 
grower, a profit being always afterwards made by sorting, 
which ought to be got by the farmer. 

Potato-separators have usually been constructed with three 
sieves or screens of different sized meshes, placed one under 
the other with a shoot to carry the potatoes from each screen 
to a separate receptacle ; but Mr. Daintree, of Somersham, 
Huntingdonshire, has introduced an entirely new description 
of machine, exceedingly simple in its action, as, by one 
simple rotatory motion, which can' be performed by any boy 
or woman, the potatoes are separated into three sizes, with 
much greater regularity than can be effected by any other 
means. The screen will entirely free them from all dirt, 
straw, or any other rubbish. 

Boot-ivasliing Machines. — If machines are not provided 
for this purpose, the general business of the steading will 
be found to be conducted in a slovenly manner, as I know 
of nothing more indicative of it than to see stock feeding 
from roots covered with dirt ; yet how often is it the case ! 
Look at the state of the potatoes preparing for the hogs in 
many farms. Does the feeder imagine the animal is to get 
fat on dirt ? 

An ordinary practice is to put the roots into a large tub 



ROOT -WASHERS. 



125 



•filled up witli water, arcd with a stick stir thein about. It 
is true roots may be tboroughly washed by this means ; but 
it is equally true they never are. There is no use doing the 
thing badly when such capital machines as those constructed 
by Eichmond & Chandler and Crosskill are to be got at 
moderate prices. 

Eichmond & Chandler's machine consists of a cylinder 
formed of narrow bars, into which the roots are placed ; the 
cylinder is supported at each end of an iron water cistern, 
in which it revolves by the action of a winch at one end, 
A portion of the cylinder is moveable, for the purpose of 
admitting and withdrawing the roots. At each end of the 
water trough is a rack set at an angle of forty-five degrees, 
and near the top of this rack it is curved nearly to the 
horizontal. 

On the gudgeon that supports the cylindrical washer is 
placed a pinion, which gears in the rack. A simple arrange- 
ment enables the operator (after he has revolved the 
cylinder sufficiently often to cleanse the roots) to strike in 
gear the pinion with the rack ; the cylinder is then lifted 
up to the horizontal part of the rack, where it remains while 
being emptied into a trough or barrow. 

CrosslcilVs Archimedean Boot- Washer. — This is an exceed- 
ingly ingenious and simple root-washer, and does equally 
well for seed, corn, Egyptian beans, &c., when provided with 
a perforated cylinder. Pig. 43 represents this machine ; it 
consists of a cylinder similarly constructed to the one we 
have described by Eichmond. In this cylinder is placed a 
spiral chamber, against which the roots press while being 
washed, which is done by a winch turning the cylinder in 
a water tank ; when the roots are cleansed the motion of 
the cylinder is reversed, and the roots pass through the 
spiral into a shoot, as shown in the woodcut. 

The two legs at one end of the cistern are placed upon 
wheels, and at the other are two barrow-handles, thus 



126 APPxiEATTJS rOR COOKIXG TOOD FOR STOCK. 

enabling the macliine to be removed from place to place 
with extreme ease. 

Fig. 43. 




CEOSKILL's AhCHIlIEDEAN ROOT- WASHER. 



APPAEATTIS FOB COOKIKG FOOD FOR STOCK. 

The advantages of cooking the food of animals are so well 
understood now, that a steaming apparatus is considered 
indispensable to everj well-ordered steading. The process 
of boiling or steaming is known to effect great and important 
changes, both in the chemical and mechanical condition of 
food, and to render many substances suitable for the digestion 
of animals which, in then raw state, are indigestible or 
unwholesome. The mechanical division of boiled food faci- 
litates the acts of mastication, swallowing, and ruminating 
(in ruminating animals) . 

Hence it naturally results that cooked food is more 
economical, as digestion being more perfectly performed a 
less quantity of food will suffice to produce the increase of 



APPARATUS FOR COOKING FOOD FOE STOCK. 127 

weight in the animal. The boiling of the food of animals is 
one of the best known means of promoting digestion; it 
also increases the quantity as well as the quality of the 
alimentary substances which undergo the process. This 
advantageous result appears to originate in part from the 
circumstance that the molecules of the alimentary substance 
are separated by the coction which they undergo, and thus 
present a greater surface to the influence of the gastric 
juice, and partly from the influence of the water in which 
they are immersed, as well as the high temperature to which 
they are exposed, augmenting their nutritive powers. The 
water seems actually to become solid, as in the making of 
bread, by entering into union with them, or by imparting 
its hydrogen, which afterwards, uniting with carbon, con- 
tributes greatly to the formation of fat. 

The ordinary apparatus used for steaming food for stock, 
consists of a copper or boiler for generatiug the steam, and 
a receptacle into which the food is placed to be acted upon 
by the steam. 

The boiler is made in a variety of ways, it being only 
necessary to construct it of sufficient strength to bear a 
pressure of about two pounds to the square inch. Some- 
times the boilers are made spherical, at others cylindrical, 
and often a small waggon-shaped boiler is used. In steadings 
of large size, where a fixed engine is used, the boiler employed 
to generate the steam for the engine, should also supply 
the coppers for cooking the food. In small farmeries a 
complete apparatus for steaming may be purchased adapted 
to the size of the holding. Several of these are now manu- 
factured by diflerent houses, properly constructed for the 
purpose. Among these, Stanley's seems to be considered 
one of the most complete : it consists of a portable steam- 
generator, a strong oak compound tub, with copper or iron 
inside lining, and a six-bushel vegetable-pan. It is fitted 
complete, with force-pump, water-gauge, unions, and pipes. 



128 



TTE^'SILS OF THE DAIRY. 



The vegetable-pan is a cylinder, supported in tlie centre on 
each side. Through one of these bearing-trunnions the steam 
is admitted. This manner of hanging is to enable the pan 
to be tilted, so as to discharge its contents into the pails or 
barrows, in which it is carried to the stock. 

A neat and conyenient apparatus is manufactured hj 
E. [Robinson, of Belfast ; the boiler being a cylinder 
standing on four short legs ; in this cylinder is placed the 
furnace, and aboye it a yase-shaped vessel for supplying 
water. The vegetable-tub is placed on a barrow, so that it 
can be removed straight to the stock after the food has been 
cooked. This machine is well adapted for cooking out of 
doors, as the whole apparatus may be removed from one 
place to another with great facility. Messrs. Eichmond, of 
SaKord, received a medal at the Derby Meeting of the Eoyal 
Agricultural Society, in 1843, for a very complete steaming 
apparatus, particularly recommended for its fittings, as 
regards safety, supply of water, &c. 

A variety of plans are in use for steaming and cooking 
food, but the kind of apparatus we have described, as made 
by Stanley, Eichmond, and others, is so superior to all 
others, that it is not worth while describing them. 



CHAPTEE XL 



CHUENS AND THE UTENSILS OF THE DAIRY. 

The CJmrn is a machine for agitating milk and cream, by 
which means the butyraceous matter is separated, and butter 
produced. 

The simplest and oldest form in which chums are made is 
in the form called the conical cottage dash-churn. This is 
constructed by the cooper, and consists of a long narrow 



CHURNS. 



129 



tub, tapering upwards to allow of tightening by hoops ; it 
has a lid, and in that a small central aperture, through 
which works a staff or handle ; on the bottom of this, 
inside the cylinder, is a round disc of wood, with a number 
of holes cut in it, or else it is made of separate bars. The 
diameter of the disc is something less than the upper 
diameter of the cylinder. 

The simple motion perpendicularly of the handle upwards 
and downwards works the piston, or perforated board, at the 
bottom, through the cream, and agitates it sufficiently to 
cause it to throw up the butter in lumps. It is taken from 
the chum in this state, and made up to lumps for market, 
or placed in casks with salt. This description consumes 
considerable power when worked by hand, and is slow and 
tedious. 

In large dairies, the churn employed is usually a barrel 
(not bulged in the middle), having in one end a hole, 
through which the cream is admitted, and the butter 
extracted. Over this hole is a plate of metal or wood, which 
can be screwed down to the head of the barrel, — a piece of 
leather or cloth being first placed between the parts, in the 
centre of each head of the barrel are securely and accurately 
fixed two gudgeons or spindles. These are placed in proper 
bearings set upon a strong frame, and on one end of the 
gudgeons, or both, are placed winches, by which the barrel 
may be made to reYolve. In the interior of it, parallel with 
its axis, and secured to it, are pieces of board radiating from 
its centre. These agitate the milk sufficiently, as the barrel 
is turned. 

The chief defects of this machine are a too great tendency 
to carry the milk round with the barrel, and the difficulty 
of getting at the interior to properly cleanse it after churning. 

Another barrel-chum is made by causing the barrel to 
remain stationary, and placing a shaft through its centre, 
upon which the dashers are placed. The operation is much 

G 3 



130 



UTENSILS OP THE DAIE.Y. 



the same, except that in the one case the milk is worked 
against the dashers, while in the other the dasher is worked 
against the milk. 

Box-cliurns are similar in their action to the one jnst 
described, except that they are four-sided, while the other is 
cylindrical. These are made in immense variety, the differ- 
ence of the shape of the dasher being the chief cause of the 
variety. 

The ordinary old box-churn dasher consisted of eight arms 
fixed upon a spindle, four on each side of the box, the arms 
radiating from the centre, and placed at right angles to 
each other ; between these arms are placed narrow flat 
pieces of wood, generally three in number (in the small 
hand-churns), the spaces between them and their width being 
equally diiided. The spindle passes through the centre of 
these arms, and gives motion to them by means of a winch- 
handle outside. One end of the spmdle works in a bush 
let into one side of the box, and the other nicely secured 
from leakage by means of a plate secured to the top of it ; 
the bearings of the spindle are generally made of ivory, as 
brass bearings would taint the cream. Churns of this 
description are made of aU sizes, suitable to the extent of 
the dairy for which they are intended. A churn has been 
introduced in Ireland, and considered as a great improve- 
ment upon this. It consists in placing round the lower 
part of the box a water space (the box beiug made of metal 
in the lower part, and semicircular in form) ; the ends are 
of the ordinary woods, as birch or palm-tree. The water in 
this outer case of the churn is employed to regulate the 
temperature of the cream. It is supplied to the resen^oir 
by means of a funnel, and a tube passing down the side of 
the upper part of the box ; it is covered with a lid like the 
ordinary box-churn. One peculiarity of this machine is 
that the spindle passes through this in the direction of its 
greatest dimension, while in the others it is through its 



CHURNS. 



131 



shortest. Tlie regulating-'bars are here round rods instead 
of flat spars. The whole is mounted on a metal frame, and 
has a compact and handsome appearance. An exceedingly 
elegant and good churn is described in Stevens's " Book of 
the Farm," as being originaHy invented by the justly 
celebrated Mr. Wedgwood, though lately brought forward 
as a new invention. 

This containing vessel is still formed of the "Wedgwood 
stone-ware of the strongest white glazed kind, and has a 
varnished wooden cover ; the outer case is made of sheet 
zinc : both inner and outer cases are cylindrical, and 
an ample space is left between the two. In the inner 
cylinder is placed a vertical spindle, upon which the dashers 
are placed ; these are three vanes of wood or metal nearly 
the whole depth of the churn, and having perforations 
through them ; on the top of the spindle is sometimes 
placed a horizontal wharve or pulley, and the machine is 
put in motion by means of a bow-string. This is elfected 
in the same manner as a watchmaker works his drill, the 
bow being bent until the string is sufficiently slack to enable 
it to pass once round the puUey ; the bag is then allowed to 
expand outwards, and being then pulled backwards and 
forwards, gives a motion of considerable velocity to the 
spindle. This motion being reversed, is highly favourable 
to the producing the butter. 

As a substitute for the bow-string (which is not the most 
easily managed means for giving motion, unless for exceed- 
ingly small machines), there is placed on the top of the 
spindle a mitre-wheel or pinion, and supported by an iron 
frame ; on a cross-shaft is another larger mitre-wheel which 
receives motion from a crank or winch, the motion being 
reversed every second revolution. 

Mr. Stevens gives the following result of an experiment 
made to ascertain whether the alternate motion might not 
be dispensed with : — 



132 



UTENSILS OF THE DAIRY. 



" In tlie plane cylindrical vessel, with the agitator always 
moving in one direction, butter was obtained in fifty-five 
minutes. In the same vessel, with the agitator moving 
alternately right and left, at every two revolutions, butter 
was obtained in twenty-five minutes. 

"In this same vessel, fitted as above described, with 
counter agitators, but with the agitator moving in one 
direction only, butter was obtained in twenty minutes. 
Prom these results it appears that, even with a cylindrical 
vessel, if properly armed, the process is performed in a 
shorter time than with inconvenient reversed motions." 

A peculiar chum is noticed in Lambert's " Travels in the 
United States and Lower Canada : " — 

" At a farmer's near Lake Champlain, we saw a machine 
for churning butter. It was a kind of half-barrel, with a 
place where one of the farmer's sons sat astride as on 
horseback. The machine, moving up and down, answered 
the double purpose of a rocking-horse for his children, and 
a machine for making butter." 

The Lancashire chum is considered to be a good one, and 
is worked with a cord similarly to the bow-string chum ; 
but in this case no bow is used, a triangular frame of wood 
being substituted in its place ; one angle works in a gudgeon 
on the ground beside the churn, the other two angles have 
secured to them the cord which passes round the top of the 
staff, there being no pulley as in the other. The operator 
stands with one foot on each side of the triangular frame, 
and throws his whole weight alternately from one side to 
the other ; the cord is thus made to wind up the dasher as 
well as turn it round, thereby producing a compound motion, 
combining both the action of the box-chum and the old 
vertical acting dash-churn. 

The Derbyshire churn is a combination of the barrel and 
box-churn, the dasher working similar to that in the box- 
churn, but is composed of fiat boards with holes through them. 



CHURNS. 



133 



A great deal has been said of late about American cburns, 
and the great improvements effected in them ; thej are of 
two kinds, Antony's Cellular Agitator or Dasher, and 
Dalphin's, with a curved moveable piece attached to a 
cellular dasher. 

In Antony's churn the dasher is a flat board, having a 
piece of wood running all round the edge of it, and pro- 
jecting about an inch above it ; between these raised sides 
are cross pieces, four in number, of the same height as the 
rim-pieces, thus dividing each side of the dasher into five 
divisions or cells, the middle one being considerably the 
largest. The advantage of having these cells is to carry 
down into the cream a quantity of air, and the cross-pieces 
produce a better agitation than the ordinary bars of the 
box-churn. 

Dalphin's churn is also a cellular churn, the backs of the 
cells being curved instead of square, as in Antony's ; but 
the principal difference is the having a moveable piece 
turning on a centre at each side of the dasher. It is said to 
offer a peculiar resistance when the butter is first forming, 
which greatly facilitates and increases its production when 
turning ; the cream is agitated by meeting with the slats of 
the dasher, which are set at such angles as to force the cream 
towards the centre ; it is then met by the moveable floats, 
which when revolving stand open, and cause the cream to 
move outwards, which various and contrary motions so 
agitate it, that the butter is soon produced. The proprietors 
of this churn say, that without removing the butter, 
and with the same motion, it wiU perfectly separate 
every particle of buttermilk from the butter, wash it in 
clean cold water, work in the salt evenly, and turn it out 
a solid mass of pure butter. The arrangement of the 
dasher is such as to allow of its being turned with great 
ease, and bring the butter in a very short time ; revers- 
ing the handle, that is turning in the opposite direction, 



134 



UTENSILS OF THE DAIRY. 



causes it to gather the butter and work out every drop of 
buttermilk. 

In very large dairies it is necessary to have churns of large 
size, to be driven by horse-gear, water-wheels, or steam 
power. All the churns we have described may be con- 
structed of large dimensions, but the arrangements for 
giving motion to the dashers become then a matter of 
importance. Messrs. Bichmond & Chandler have pro- 
duced a churn for large dairies that is I think the best I have 
ever seen ; its superiority consists in having a double per- 
pendicular action, by which the plunger of the downward 
stroke forces the cream through the middle partition, 
following the upward plunger, so that at the reversion of 
the cranks, the cream is met by the plungers and forced 
backward and forward in rapid succession, " erasing " and 
agitating it in a few minutes into small particles of butter ; 
after which, by slowly turning the crank, the small particles 
adhering to each other quickly become in a condition to be 
taken out. 



Fig. 44. 



CURD-BREAKER. 



135 



Tjtherleigli's patent barrel-cliurii is considered a most 
excellent one; it is in use in lier Majesty's dairy at 
"Windsor, and has given the greatest satisfaction. 

Curd-Breaker. — This machine is used for breaking the 
cui'd in the manufacture of skim milk, cheeses, &c. 
It consists of a hopper of wood VI \ inches by 14 
inches on the top, and 10 inches in depth, and a 
cylinder of hard wood 6J inches in length, and Sc- 
inches and a half in diameter. The cylinder is studded 
with square pegs made of hard wood, each a quarter of an 
inch in the side, cut square at the ends, and projecting three 
eighths of an inch. There are eight teeth in the length, and 
fifteen in the circumference of the cylinder, 120 teeth in 
all. It revolves on a round iron axle 12 inches in length, 
and is moved by a crank handle ; there are two wedge- 
shaped pieces of hard wood, made to fill up, in some degree, 
the space between the side of the hopper and the cylinder. 
These pieces rest on a slip of wood nailed to the lower rim of 
the hopper, to keep them in then- place. The face of these 
is studded with nine teeth of hard wood, similar to those on 
the cyhnder, at opposite sides. The stand can be made of 
any length, to suit the breadth of the tub into which the 
curd is broken. The implement is used in this manner : — 
Place over it a tub, heap the hopper with curd, and, on 
turniDg the winch in either direction, the curd will fall, 
broken quite small, into the tub. While one hand is moving 
the machine, the other can press the curd gently down into 
the hopper. As cleanliness is a matter of the greatest 
importance in cheese-making, the internal parts of this 
machine, being loosely put together, can be easily taken to 
pieces to clean. The cylinder axle rests on two hard wooden 
blocks, one on each side, which shp out of their groove. 
They are held in their working position by the thumb- 
catch sunk flush with the bottom of the stand, one over each 
block. The wedge-shaped pieces come out. To prevent the 



136 



UTENSILS or THE DAIEY. 



curd working out of the sides of the axle, the cylinder is set 
a little at both ends into the sides of the hopper. 

Cheese-Fr esses. — A variety of contrivances are used for this 
purpose, but they are aU similar in their action, the object 
being to place a heavy weight on the forms of curd, which 
weight shall descend regularly down after the cheeses as they 
decrease in bulk, from the whey being expressed from them. 
The old form of cheese-press was usually a heavy weight of 
stones placed ia a box, which was raised either with a screw, 
or cords and pulleys. The more modem cheese-presses act 
by the action of levers instead of weights, or by pneumatic 
pressure. Baird's press is one of the best in common use, 
and is described in. the Highland Society's Transactions. It 
consists of a circular bed-plate, supported on four curved 
legs; from each side of this bed-plate, two circular iron 
columns are fixed to support a cross piece, through which 
passes a bar of iron, one side being formed iuto a toothed 
face or rack. On the lower end of this bar is placed another 
circular plate having two ears, one on each side, with holes 
in them, through which the two perpendicular rods before 
mentioned pass ; this second plate corresponds with the 
former one ia size, and it is between them that the cheeses 
are pressed. On the cross piece is placed a pinion which 
acts against the rack ; a lever is placed in such a manner as 
to act upon the pinion according to the force employed, by 
placing a weight upon the lever at suitable distances from 
its fulcrum. Cheese-presses upon this principle are ma-de 
by a variety of manufacturers. 

An improvement upon this press has been made by 
ThewHs & G-rifiB-ths. In theirs, the facility for making 
and pressiag cheese is secured by means of a pair of bevil 
wheels,, and a treble pitch screw, regulated by a self-acting 
lever and weight, whereby a pressure of upwards of two tons 
may be obtained. 

Hobinson's Pneumatic Cheese-Press is thus described in 



CHEESE-PEESSES. 



137 



the Highland Society's Transactions. When of fuU size, 
this press may consist of a stand about three feet high, on 
the top of which may be fixed a tinned copper or zinc vessel 
of any required capacity (say 18 inches diameter, and 
18 inches deep) to contain the prepared curd. This vessel 
should have a loose bottom of ribbed work, covered with 
wire-cloth, from under which a smaU tube nearly twelve 
inches long, should communicate with a close vessel, capable 
of containing aU the whey which may be drawn from the 
curd in the upper vessel. At one side of the stand there 
may be a small pump-barrel of about seven inches deep, from 
the bottom of which a suction pipe should terminate at its 
upper end in a valve opening upwards, and a piston with a 
similar valve should be placed in the pump-barrel, and be 
worked by a jointed lever. The process is to be conducted 
as follows : — The curd being prepared, and salted in the 
usual way, a cloth is to be put over and into the upper 
vessel, and the curd put Hghtly into it, except round the 
edges, where it should be packed quite close to the sides of 
the vessel, so that no air may pass that way ; the pump handle 
is then to be briskly worked for a few minutes, on which the 
pressure of the external air will force the whey to run down 
the tube into the whey -vessel ; when it ceases to run, a few 
strokes of the pump may be repeated. The cloth and its 
contents are then to be lifted bodily out of the curd vessel, 
and to be put into a mould of close wirework, with a weight 
placed over it until it become firm enough to be handled. 
The mould should stand on a sparred shelf (a shelf made of 
laths like a bacon-rack) to allow the air free access to it 
on all sides of the cheeses. 



138 



CIRCULAR- SAW BENCH. 



CHAPTEE XII. 

CIRCULAR-SAW BENCH. 

This macliiiie is indispensable to every large farm ; — 
sawing being a most expensive description of labour when 
performed by the regular sa^\yer ; and the large quantity of 
sawing required to be done on a large farm renders the 
fitting up of a saw-bench a positive economy, as the motive 
power of the steading may be employed to drive it ; and 
fencing, as well as nearly every other description of sawing, 
may be performed with it, and at a comparatively trifling 
cost. 



Fig. 45. 




CIRCULAE-SAW BEXCH. 



Fig. 45 represents a small saw-bench, adapted to farm 
purposes, the framing being entirely of iron. They are 
generally made of wood ; and if the steading is being built 
new, and the timber-work constructed of the timber grown 
on the estate, as is often the case, the bench had better be 
of wood. It is constructed in the following manner ; — An 
exceeding strong wooden framing is prepared, about 8 feet 



CIECULAR-SAW BE!S'CH. 



139 



long, and 4 feet wide, and about 3 feet 6 inches from the 
ground. The timber must be of great strength, and very 
securely framed by tenon and mortising, and strong iron 
bolts passing from side to side, tightening up against 
countersunk iron plates. The framing must be supported 
by diagonal pieces tenoned into the centre of the upper 
rail, and into the posts and lower rail. These diagonal 
pieces are sometimes omitted, but when they are, the bench 
will be sure to become rickety, as it is impossible to con- 
struct frames of machines, that have to resist great strains, 
like a table on four simple legs. Near the centre of the 
table, in the direction of its length, is placed and sunk, so 
that its upper surface may be exactly level with the surface 
of the table, an iron plate. In this plate is a cut or slot, or 
half the iron lengthways is moveable. Under the bed- 
plate, crossways of the table, is placed a strong iron shaft or 
spindle, supported on two plummer blocks. On one end of 
this spindle are two pulleys, the one fixed to the spindle, and 
the other running loose upon it. At the other end of the 
spindle is a disc of iron, having a perfectly flat face ; a 
small piece of the spindle projects through the centre of this 
iron plate, and upon that is placed the saw. 

The saws are flat circular plates of steel, having teeth cut 
upon their outer edge. They are made of various sizes, 
from 10 inches diameter to 4 feet, the teeth being cut large, 
and shaped for ripping up large stufi*, or small for cutting 
joiners' wood. 

The saw has a hole in the centre exactly the size of the 
turned end of the spindle upon which it is placed, and 
another disc of iron is screwed upon it, pressing it and 
holding it securely against the other, and in its place, so as 
to run perfectly true. The moveable portion of the bed- 
plate is then replaced, and rather less than half the saw 
appears above the surface of the table. A strap from some 
portion of the machinery in motion is placed upon the loose 



140 



CIRCTJLAH-SAW BENCH. 



pulley on the spindle when the saw is required to be used ; 
the strap is pressed towards the fixed puUey, which, from its , 
shape, immediately runs upon and gives motion to the saw. 
It is necessary that the saw should revolve with immense I 
rapidity, or it will not be efiective. 

To enable the sawyer to use this saw when so revolving, 
it is necessary that some means must be contrived to enable 
him to secure the piece of wood he is cutting from moving 
out of a straight line while the saw is passing through it. 
This is effected by a guide-plate of wood or iron, placed 
exactly parallel with the line of the saw. At the back of 
this is another plate, also perfectly parallel, and from one to 
the other extend bars of iron, moveable at the points, where 
they are held exactly the same as an ordinary parallel ruler. 
The guide-plates may by this means be brought close up to 
the saw, or removed ever so far back towards the points. 
In the wood-cut there is no plate at the back, the radius 
bars being fixed to the table, the guide-plate being set to 
any fixed distance from the line of the saw, and secured by 
screws in that position. The piece of wood to be cut is 
placed upon the table, and moved against the cutting-edge 
of the saw, while at the same time it is pressed firmly 
against the guide-plate. Being kept in this position while 
gently moved forward, the saw will, of course, pass through 
it in a perfectly straight line, cutting off a piece of exactly a 
thickness equal to the space between the guide-plate and 
the saw. 



VERMIN; AND THE METHOD OF DESTROYING IT. 141 



CHAPTEE XIII, 

VERMIN, AND THE METHOD OF DESTROYING IT. 

Oe vermin tliat infect the steading, the rat is bj far the 
worst, and the most common. 

The rat usually met with is the domestic rat of Js'orway, 
or gray rat, which has almost entirely extirpated the 
indigenous black rat. To get rid of him is an exceedingly 
troublesome affair. The best way is to prevent his coming, 
or rather taking up his abode ; and this may be done by 
constructing the building in the manner described in Yol. I., 
so as to prevent, as much as possible, his travelling about on 
the top of the walls, and under the floors. An immense 
variety of plans are resorted to to catch and kill these 
animals : by poison laid about for them to eat, by traps set 
at different places, or by a rattery regularly constructed in 
some particular situation, and by employing animals, as dogs 
and cats, to catch them. 

Of the different plans, the following appear to me to be 
the best : — Fry a piece of sponge or cork in butter ; then 
compress it between two plates ; afterwards cut it in little 
pieces, and lay it about for the vermin near the holes they 
frequent. They will eat it with avidity ; and as it excites 
excessive thirst, they vnll drink water, which immediately 
swells the fried sponge, and kills them. 

Plaster of Paris, mixed with barley -meal and salt, is said 
to produce a similar effect. 

E-ubbing their holes with Stockholm tar soils their coats, 
and puts them to such mconveniencej that they wiU leave 
the place. Mixing barytes with water produces such intense 
thirst, that they will seek water immediately, and die the 



142 



SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 



moment they drink. Poisoning their food with arsenic, and 
mixing treacle and arsenic together, and smearing their 
holes with it, is found to be effective. 

A variety of other poisons are used; but they are aU 
dangerous to the other animals about the steading, and had 
better not be used if possible. 

Eat-traps are made in great variety ; but these soon 
acquire the disagreeable odour peculiar to rats and mice ; 
and after that is the case they will not enter them. 

The best plan is to have good cats, well kept ; for they 
will be more effective in clearing vermin when in good 
condition than when half starved. They should be regularly 
fed every day, like any other animal ; and they will keep the 
interior of the buildings clearer of both rats and mice than 
any traps or poisons could effect. 



CHAPTEE XIY. 

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 

The class of persons into whose hands the farm lands of 
this*" country will soon pass will possess such a superior 
amount of intelligence that the most scientific operations 
wiU be accurately performed, and all the benefits of a 
scientific knowledge rendered available. 

The use to any extent of philosophical instruments by the 
old class of agriculturists was out of the question ; but there 
is no reason now why those who have tlie management of 
large and valuable farms should not be as well able to use a 
scientific instrument as those who have the management of 
large merchant ships, as there is no doubt but the agricul- 
turist may derive considerable advantage, and his judgment 
be materially assisted, by the use of them. 



SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 



It is well known that the weather effects a sensible power 
in retarding or accelerating field operations. It is therefore 
positively incumbent on the master of a farm to make 
himself as thoroughly acquainted as he can with the 
principles which regulate the phenomena of the atmosphere, 
so as to enable him to form as correct a judgment as possible of 
what weather to expect when about commencing any particular 
operation. To aid him in this, he will require the following 
instruments : — A barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, rain- 
gauge, and a weathercock, fixed in some position where it 
may be easily observed, and not affected by local currents 
and eddies of wind. 

The barometer is an instrument for determining the 
weight of the air, and the variation of its pressure under 
different circumstances. It was invented by Evangelista 
Torricelli, a pupil of Gralileo, whom he succeeded as teacher 
of mathematics at Florence. He calculated that the same 
cause which raises water 33 or 34 feet high (a fact which 
Galileo had previously discovered) should raise mercury, 
which is fourteen times heavier, only 29 or 30 inches ; and 
his experiments proved the correctness of his theory, that 
the column of mercury was supported by the pressure of a 
column of air resting on the mercury in the tube, and 
extendiag upwards to the limit of the atmosphere. 

Torricelli, in constructing his first barometer, closed a tube 
of glass hermetically at one end, then filled it with mercury 
through the other ; and upon inverting it in a vessel con- 
taining the same material, he found the mercury descend in 
the tube, and remaui 29 or 30 inches high. The space in 
the upper part of the tube unoccupied is called the 
Torricellian vacuum. 

Barometers adapted for judging of the weather are made 
iu.a variety of forms ; but the two in general use are either 
an upright column of mercury, with a graduated scale, or 
what is called a wheel barometer, which has a face, with 



144 



SCIENTIFIC INSTEUMEXTS. 



hands pointing to a graduated circle, and marked rain, fair, &c. 
The latter plan, though most commonly used, is not so good 
as the upright tube, as there is considerable machinerY to 
be put in motion by the mercury to indicate the change 
on the circular face ; this must naturally lessen the delicacy 
of the indication. 

The tube of the barometer is a most important matter. It 
should be perfectly true and cylindrical, about 33 inches in 
length, and the bore must not be too small, which it in 
nearly all cases is, to save mercury ; for when it is so, the 
friction and capillary attraction will affect the free motion of 
the mercury up and down the tube. 

The mercury should be carefully freed from all foreign 
metals. Common mercury is greatly adulterated with tin, 
lead, and bismuth. 

In observmg the mercury, if the upper surface in the tube 
is convex, it is about to rise ; if concave, to fall. The scale 
is usually graduated to the level of the sea; that is, the 
mercury rises the lower it descends towards that level, and 
faUs as it is removed to greater altitudes. Should a farmer 
possess an instrument so graduated, and he reside up in 
some hill country, the mercury would not indicate truly 
according to the figures and writing on the scale. It is 
therefore important to register the actual fall and rise of 

rcury, and judge by that more particularly. 

The indications of the barometer are thus : — When the 
mercu. ^ is high and remains so, good weather ; a gradual 
and equal fall is indicative of rain, and the more rain if the 
wind is east of south. Sudden changes of the level of the 
mercury indicate similar change of the weather ; and sudden 
falling of the mercury to any extent surely indicates gales of 
wind and storms. We have not space in this little book to 
point out all the various peculiarities of the instrument, 
and the changes it is liable to. The observer should study 
some scientific work which treats of the subject at length. 



THE RICK-YARD. 



145 



The thermometer is an instrument for measuring heat, on 
the principle that the expansion of matter is equal to its 
augmentations of temperature. A variety of materials have 
been used in the construction of thermometers — water, 
alcohol, and oil, — but mercury approaches more nearly to 
solids in its rate of expansion, and remains liquid through a 
longer range of temperature ; it is, therefore, adopted as 
preferable to all others. A common thermometer is merely 
an instrument in which very minute expansions of the 
mercury are rendered perceptible. This is effected by filling 
a glass tube with mercury, in a similar manner to what we 
have described for the barometer, and attaching to it a 
graduated scale. Common thermometers are exceedingly 
inaccurate, in consequence of the irregularities of the inside 
of the tube. The scale, which is placed by the side of the 
tube, should be graduated, to allow for the inequalities, if 
for any very minute purpose ; but as no very accurate 
observation is required by the agriculturist, an ordinarily 
constructed one will be sufficient. They are exceedingly 
cheap ; and all cattle-feeding houses should be provided with 
one, and an equal temperature be preserved. 



CHAPTEE XV. 

THE RICK-YAED, 

lif the rick-yard will be required to be placed frames, or 
beds of some kind, upon which the stacks are to be placed, 
and so constructed that vermin be not able to get at the 
grain, which it will most assuredly do, if no means be taken 
to prevent it. Sometimes a circular wall is built, with a 
projecting coping ; but the usual plan is to construct stack- 
stools or staddles. This is done by arranging as supports, at 

VOL. II. H 



146 



THE EICK-YAED, 



distances according to the size of the rick, a series of stone 
or iron pedestals, conical in shape, and having on the top a 
cap of the same material, but of considerably larger 
diameter, called the bonnet, — the onter edge of this cap 
stone being so far removed from the upright piece, prevents 
the possibility of vermin being able to mount to the frame 
that supports the stack. 

These staddles are now made of iron by all the implement 
manufacturers, at a reasonable price ; and are by far the 
best things for the purpose. An excellent description is 
made by Messrs. Garrett, of a circular form, and of three 
rings, one within the other. The supports are small ^Tought 
iron columns, resting on square bases, and surmounted with 
hollow conical caps. It is impossible for vermin to reach 
the rick when it is thus protected ; and a free current of air 
being secured through, the corn is hardened and dried 
better than by any other plan. 

Deane, Dray, & Co., make an excellent rick-stand, square, 
upon cast-iron legs, with conical caps, and supporting a 
square frame. 

The rick-yard should be enclosed with a good waU, and be 
trimmed to an even surface. For the plan of arranging the 
ricks, the reader is referred to Yol. I., p. 82. A rail or 
tramway should be laid down, for facilitating the removal of 
the ricks to the thrashing-barn, and the removal of straw 
back to the rick-yard, should it be thought necessary to 
restack it, after having passed through the machine, as is 
often done. For the manner of constructing the railway, 
see article on farm railways, in Vol. III. of this work. 

The BicJc-yard Tr uck. — A variety of contrivances have been 
made for removing the straw in the rick-yard ; sometimes the 
stacks have been constructed on staddles which had wheels, 
and the whole rick was to be bodily moved up to the thrashing 
barn, but this is an exceedingly difficulfc plan to carry out, 
and would take up a great deal of room, and requii'e a great 



TliE EICK-YAHD. 



147 



length of railway to be laid down. That there must be a 
railway is agreed on all hands, and the only difficulty is, that 
the stacks must be arranged on either side of a straight 
line of rails, which would be impossible in many cases, 
and exceedingly inconvenient in others, or, a consider- 
able expense must be incurred in having turntables at 
each junction of cross line, so as to get at the ricks from 
the main line ; now as these turntables would be very 
expensive in the first cost, and would only be used perhaps 
twice a year each, it is evident that the increased cost of 
carrying the ricks by the ordinary means of carts and 
waggons would be preferable to allowing a large sum to lie 
idle in the shape of turntables, only to be used once or twice 
in a year ; some means must therefore be devised to keep 
the lines crossing each other at right angles, and get rid of 
the cost of turntables. This has been done in two ways ; 
first by Mr. Morton in the following manner. 

Between the principal lines of ricks is a sunk road with 
a line of rails upon it, and upon this is placed a truck ; upon 
this truck is placed cros sways, a pair of rails, fitting with 
those on the cross lines ; a truck being laden at the side of 
the rick on the cross line, it is run along till its wheels are 
on the cross rails of the truck on the main line, and which 
we before stated is in a sunk road. The truck laden from the 
cross line, upon the truck on the sunk line, are then together 
run up to the thrashing-barn. There is no doubt but this 
plan answers very well, its objection only being the expense 
of tw^o trucks instead of one, and the cost of making the 
channel in which the sunk truck runs, I question whether 
much is saved from the cost of turntables. 

The other plan is one I have myself invented, and which I 
think gets over the whole difficulty. It is by having a truck 
so constructed, that it wiU pass from one line to the other 
without the aid of a turntable. 

rig. 46 represents a portion of this truck, showing the 



148 



THE RICK-YAHD. 



manner in wHch the wheels are arranged to work on both 
lines : A is the side frame of the truck, b the axle, upon 
which is placed the wheel, c an ordinary flanged railway 



Eig. 46. 





L 




i 


\ 1 

'- 




\ 

' -) 



wheel ; there would of course be four of these wheels on 
two axles, as in any ordinary foui'- wheeled truck ; beside 
the frame outside is placed a cast-iron carriage i> ; in this 
carriage works the foot of a moveable lever e, upon a pin r, 
through cheeks ; at the bottom of the lever is a projecting 
piece G, at right angles with it ; at the end of this is placed 
a small wheel with a flange h. "When the lever e is in an 
upright position, the bottom of the w^heel at its outer end is 
about an inch above the level of the rails on the main line, 
upon which the flanged wheels c are running. "When it is 



PUMPS. 



149 



required that tbe truck shall be used on the cross line, the 
wheels h, of which there are of course four, are brought over 
the cross line, and the lever e being turned down and sfecured 
by a ball, the other wheels c, which are on the main line, are 
lifted up an inch from the rails, and the truck then proceeds 
along the cross line for its load upon the four smaller wheels 
now brought into action ; on its return to the main line, they 
are raised again by the lever, and the other wheels descend 
upon the main line of rails, and the truck moves in a direction 
at right angles with the one it had just left. The dotted 
lines show the position of the wheels when moving on the 
cross line, and the full lines the position when working on 
the main line. The truck of course moves end foremost on 
the main line, and sideways on the cross line. 



PUMPS 

should be provided for lifting and forcing both water and 
liquid manure, as it is essential that all the animals, and 
the different departments of the steading should be supplied 
with water, without the trouble of horsekeepers' and cattle- 
men having to fetch it from a distance. 

A head of water should be placed in some convenient 
position in the steading, so that it may, by its own gravity, 
descend to all the various troughs, cisterns, and other 
receptacles. 

The tank or head should be kept filled by a force-pump 
attached to the engine. 

Liquid Manure Fmnjps are usually common lift-pumps 
of cast-iron (and often galvanised to prevent the rapid 
corrosion consequent upon their situation). Lift-pumps 
are employed because the tanks are only a few feet deep, and 
the pump is only employed to lift the liquid to the carts, 
and is worked by hand ; but a diiferent system of supplying 
liquid manure to the land is now coming into use, which 



PUMPS. 



will require quite a different arrangement and kind of pump. 
The practice alluded to has been introduced by Mr. Huxtable, 
of Sutton Waldron, and is now also adopted by Mr. Mechi, 
at his farm at Tiptree Hall, Essex ; it consists in la^dng 
down a regular main from the homestall to the lands and 
by a force-pump driving the liquid manure through it to the 
distant parts of the farm. Mr. Huxtable remarks that 
hitherto the expense of cartage has been an effectual impedi- 
ment to the application of the contents of our tanks, except 
to a few fields around the homestead ; and therefore there 
has been no systematic delivery of the precious fluid over 
all the farm. The method he first adopted was to lay down 
wooden pipes, carefully jointed ; but experience afterwards 
showed that well burnt clay pipes, one inch thick and 
caref Lilly jointed, would stand a pressure of 200 feet head, 
without the liquid oozing through the pipes or joints. The 
pipes were If inch in diameter, and cost 7d. per yard; 
they are placed 2 feet underground, and at every 200 yards 
is inserted an upright column, bored to the same gauge as 
the pipes themselves ; on the top of these is placed a spout 
for the delivery of the liquid. Mr. Huxtable' s neighbours 
have some of them adopted the plan, and as Mr. jSIechi has 
had an opportunity of ascertaining how it works, for some 
considerable period, and has now adopted it on liis own 
farm, we may conclude that the plan having been faii-ly tried 
and found to answer well, will be generally adopted by the 
agriculturists of this country. If this is the case, fixied and 
larger engiues will be employed on the steadings, as the 
labour of driving the liquid manure through the pipes to all 
the various parts of the farm should be done by steam- 
power; and a larger amount of other manures will be 
employed, as dissolved bones, guano liquid, or any other 
manure dissolved in water, may be forced through the main 
equally as well as the drainings from the cattle-stalls. In 
part I. p. 43, of this work, will be found a plan of a 



PUMPS. 



151 



liorizontal steam-engine, and a force-pump alongside to be 
brought into use whenever necessarj. 

Bj an easj contrivance the pump may be made to draw 
from the receptacle of the liquid manure, and force it over 
the land : or the same pump may be made to draw from the 
well, and supply the cistern or head of water for the use of 
the farmery, as separate pipes would of course be prepared 
for liquid manure and water, and only the pump, barrel, and 
plunger work both ; but these would in a few strokes quite 
clean themselves, and no inconvenience result from such an 
arrangement. 

Steam power is so exceedingly economical when compared 




with the labour of either men or horses, that I apprehend 
the greatest possible benefit Avill arise from arrangements 
that throw the labour of either the one or the other upon 



152 



it ; and tlie more this is done the larger power vrill tlie 
engine require to be ; and tlie larger the engine the more 
economical will be its working, and, consequently, increased 
saving to the owner. 

TVTien a head of water is placed for the supply of the 
steading, an arrangement should be made to turn it to 
account in case of fire ; and this may easily be done by 
having a coil of hose and a branch placed in some convenient 
situation, and cocks placed upon the pipes that supply the 
buildings. The situation of the cistern would of course not 
be placed higher than necessary, as it would entail useless 
labour in pumping ; the force-pump, therefore, should be so 
arranged that it could be brought into use in the event of 
fire, and when worked by the steam engine would be so 
effective as to speedily get under any conflagi'ation. 

A steam-cock might be placed in the rick-yard, in such a 
situation "as when a hose was attached any rick might be 
got at, should a fire be discovered in that portion of the 
premises. 



END OF VOL. II. 



BRADBtTRY AJTD KVANS, PRINTERS, •WHITEFRI ARS. 



I 

II 



SUDIMEXTAEY TEEATISE 

AGRICULTURAL EXGIXEERIXG. 

TOtfj Cllustrattons. 



G. H. AXDEEWS, C.E. 
VOL. III. 

FIELD ^lACHIXES AXD IMPLEMENTS. 



LOKDOX : 
JOHX WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORX. 
1853. 



LONDON: 

EBA:'"U:i> J!»I> BVANS, PRINTERS WHITEPRTABg. 



TO 

JOSEPH GIBBS, Esq. M.I.C.E. 

THESE THREE LITTLE VOLUMES 

^xz Eesp£ctMl2 ©etiicateli 

IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OP THE MANY FAVOURS RECEIVED PROM HIM 

I, 

BY HIS OBLIGED SERVANT, 

THE AUTHOR 



PREFACE. 



This little Work on Agricultural Engineering was 
undertaken for tlie purpose of bringing, at a small cost, 
before tbe farmer sucb information as lie would most likely 
need in reconstructing bis farm-buildings, and in cboosing 
bis macbinery and implements. 

Tbese objects tbe Autbor bas endeavoured to carry out, 
and judging from tbe sale of tbe previous volumes, be flatters 
bimself not unsuccessfully. 

Altbougb tbere are a variety of macbines and implements 
tbat bave been, and are occasionally used, of wbicb no men- 
tion bas been made; yet be believes tbat no macbine or 
implement bas been omitted tbat may be considered to be 
in ordinary use, and its efficiency and utility generally 
acknowledged. 

In tbe case wbere a great number of different makers 
manufacture one kind of implement, of course it would be 



viii PREFACE. 

impossible to mention more than one or two, who have bv 
superior workmanship and greater attention to details, 
gained a reputation for it. 

In conclusion, the Author begs to tender his sincere 
thanks to those gentlemen who have kindly supplied him 
with information upon the different subjects connected 
with the work, and more particularly to Mr. Garrett of 
Leiston, Mr. Howard of Bedford, Mr. Crosskill of Beverley, 
Mr. Hornsby, Jun., of Grrantham, Mr. Haslem of Eeading, 
and Mr. Woolnough of Leiston. 

The Elms Cottage, Brentford, Middlesex, 
April, 1853. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



INTRODUCTION ... . . . , . . 1 

CHAPTER L 

MACHINEUT AND IMPLEMENTS FOR DRAINAGE 5 

SLUICES AND HATCHES . . . . , . . . . 7 

SCOOP-WHEEL AND DUTCH WINDMILLS . . , . . . 8 
DRAINING MACHINERY AT LOCH FOYLE , , . , .10 

MACHINERY FOR DRAINING THE HAARLEM LAKE . . , , 12 
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS . . . . . . . .16 

DRAIN-TILE MACHINES . . . . . . . . 18 

I MACHINES AND TOOLS FOR LAYING TILES . . . . .20 

I GIBBS'S DRAINING ENGINE . , . . . . . . 22 

drainers' TOOLS ......... 22 

CHAPTER n. 

j THE PLOUGH, HISTORY OP . . . . , , . . 23 

i ROMAN PLOUGHS, &C. ........ 25 

MODERN PLOUGH OF CASTILE , , . . . . . 27 

ROTHERHAM PLOUGH 28 

small's PLOUGH ......... 29 

the parts op the plough 29 

wheel and swing ploughs 34 

Howard's plough . . 36 

busby's plough . . . . . . . . . 39 



X 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE I 

kentish turn-wrest plough 39 

lowcock's patent plough . . . . . . . . 45 11/ 

Clark's universal ridge plough . . . . ■. . 46 M 

ransome's hoe ridge plough 4:7 M 

moulding ploughs, or double TOMS . . . . . 48 " 

double furrow plough . . . . . . . . 48 

subsoil ploughs, the deanston .49 

the rackheath subsoil plough . . . . . . 52 

the charlbury subsoil plough ...... 52 

barrett, exall, & andrews' subsoil plough . . . . 53 

read's subpulvebiser 54 

AMERICAN PLOUGH . . . . , . ... 54 i 

PLOUGHING BY STEAU . . . . . . . .55 



CHAPTEE III. 



harrows and cultivators ...... . . 57 

Armstrong's coupled harrows ...... 59 

the norwegian harrow . . . . . . . . 60 

cultivators 61 

KIRKWOOD's GRUBBER ......... 63 

BIDDELL'S SCARIFIER 63 

LORD DUCIe's cultivator, OR THE DUCIE DRAG . . . . 63 

COLMAn's drag harrow, cultivator, OR SCARIFIER . . . 64 

Johnson's skim cultivator . . . . . . . 65 

ROLLERS .......... 66 

THE NORTHUMBRIAN ROLLER . . . . . , . 67 

CROSSKILL's CLOD-CRUSHER 68 

Cambridge's press wheel roller 73 

the horse-hoe ......... 73 

TULl's, WILKIE's, BLACKIe's, and grant's HORSE-HOES . . . 74 

Garrett's horse-hoe 75 

smith's steerage horse-hoe . . . . . . . 77 

Howard's horse-hoe , , . . . . . .78 

hill's horse-hoe . . . ■ . . . . . . 79 

busby's rowel-hoe 79 



CtWrENTS. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

PAGE 



manure distjributors . . . , . . . <, 80 

crosskill's liquid manure cart ...... 81 

DEANE & dray's LIQUID MANURE CART . . , . . . 82 

blyth's broad-cast manure distributor .... 82 

chandler's manure distributor . . . , . . 83 

chandler's patent liquid manure drill .... 83 

CHAPTEE Y. 

sowing machines, history of , , . . . . . 84 

Cooke's drill ......... 87 

Garrett's general purpose drill 91 

Garrett's drills for turnips and manure on the flat . , 93 

hornsby's drill for general purposes . . , , . 94 

hornsby's two row ridge drill ...... 94 

hensman's drill 95 

hornsby's drill for small occupiers ..... 96 

drop drills ....... . . . . 97 

seed machines ......... 97 

dibbling machines . . . . . . . , . 98 

CHAPTEE YI. 

REAPING MACHINES . . . . . . . . . 99 

BOYCe's REAPING MACHINE . . . . . . .101 

PLUNKET's DITTO . . . . - . . . 101 

salmon's DITTO ,102 

smith's ditto . . . . - . . , 102 
bell's ditto . . . . . . .103 

Mccormick's ditto . 106 

hussey's ditto . . . . . • .110 

Garrett's ditto ........ Ill 

trials of reaping machines 114 

crosskill's bell's reaper . . . . . . • • 122 



xii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

HAY-ilAKING MACHINES . 122 

EAKES ........... 124 

drag-rakes . . . . . . ... 124 

Howard's horse drag-rake 125 

biddell's patent corn-gatherer . . . . . . 126 

carts and wagons 127 

crosskill's one-horse carts ....... 129 

farm railways 130 

fire-engine and liquid manure pump . . ... 132 



INTRODUCTION. 



SiycE tlie time when tliese little volumes were commenced 
the great question that agitated the agricultural world, that 
is, whether corn should be for ever imported into this 
countrj free of duty has been finallj settled. !Free-trade 
is now the law of the land, and the British farmer has to 
compete with the corn-growers in all the countries of the 
world, some of whom have been especially favoured hj 
Providence, in the situation of their land, their climate, and 
the natural fertility of their soil. Treight onlj is in favour 
of the home-grower, and this is now reduced so low as to 
be an exceedingly small matter in the question ; a himdred 
miles of ocean may be traversed as cheaply as one mile on 
the turnpike-road, and a farmer, whose market is a dozen 
miles from his homestead, is not much more favourably 
situated than he who grows corn on the banks of an 
American river. 

Earmers, we all know, have not been getting the mon- 
strous profits their opponents would pretend ; in fact, the 
tenant-farmer has not, for many years, been in a position to 
make more than a very moderate per cent age on the capital 
he has embarked in agricultural operations, and a small 
remuneration for his own labour. 

It becomes a matter of no small importance, then, that he 
should consider now in what direction he must look for 
means to compensate him for the privilege he has hitherto 

VOL. UL B 



INJEODUCTIOX. 



enjoyed, tliat lie maj compete successfolly with his more 
favoured rivals. An improved system of agriculture I con- 
ceive to be the principal point towards which attention 
should be directed; if he can at the same time get his 
landlord to lower his rent, so much the better ; but the 
lowering rents will not give anything like the advantage to 
be gained by an improved system of cultivation, to be 
carried out by reconstructing all the buildings on a proper 
plan, giving the maximum accommodation for the minimum 
cost, economising labour and promoting the welfare of the 
stock, draining the whole of his lands in a perfect manner, 
employing all the most recently-invented machines for 
diminishing the cost of working his land, and, lastly, though 
by no means least, farming only just so much land as he 
has capital to work to the highest pitch of which it is 
capable. I believe if this be done under a good landlord, 
where the rent is equitably adjusted, the cultivation of the 
soil and the production of human food, may still be a 
pro Stable occupation. 

The great dif&culty the agriculturist labours under is, 
to know what plan to adopt when so many are offered ; he 
hears of wonderful discoveries being made which are entirely 
to supersede old and established plans, new methods, new 
manures, new courses, and new crops, and before he has 
time to make a trial, he finds they are abandoned : they did 
not answer. Eirst, he is told to sow an abundance of seed, 
then that everything depends on not sowing one grain more 
than is required for a plant ; or he is told he cannot have his 
tiles laid too deep, and an equally eminent authority informs 
him that shallow drainage is much the best. The poor 
farmer gets bewildered with the thousand and one schemes 
put before him for his advantage, and consequently con- 
tinues to go on in the old way, preferring that to the plans 
of those persons who only benefit the science of agriculture 
by publishing the history of their errors. 



lyTRODUCTIOX. 



3 



Xext to tlie introcliiction of artificial maiiiires (wliicli has 
enabled a large amount of land to be covered Tvith heavy 
root crops, that could not else have been so used), the 
great advances made of late years in the construction of 
agricultural machinery and implements has been of the first 
importance ; all the operations necessary to produce a fine 
tilth, to clean the land from weeds, and to facilitate the 
operation of housing, being now efii'ected in a much superior 
manner, and at half the time and cost formerly required. It 
is in this direction particularly that the agriculturist should 
seek for greater assistance. 

First, it is of importance that a steam-engine, or other 
motive power, be adapted to do all the heavy work of the 
farm, and all the duties that possibly can, be thrown on the 
back of this cheap, never-tiring, and constant helper. The 
fii'st outlay for engine and boiler of six horses power will 
not be more than the cost of six horses, and the price of fuel 
is now reduced to an exceedingly low limit, ^Messrs. Hornsby 
having been some time working at 51b. of coal per horse- 
power per hom\. and latterly have considerably diminished 
that ; and when ]\Ir. McConnell's improvements are applied, 
I have no doubt but that a still further reduction will take 
place ; an immense saving will of course be made on farms 
of any magnitude by the introduction of steam machinery. 

A system of agricultural railways, also, would be of im- 
portance to the faimi ; and that all farms will, in a few 
years, have a railway laid from the homestead through the 
lands, I have not the least doubt, as the carrying so heav}^ 
an article as maniu'e on to the field is one of the most costly 
duties on the farm. The same railway would also facilitate 
the bringing back the produce of the fields to the home- 
steads, and aftord means for getting the business of the 
farm concentrated at the steading. 

Xow, if the gauge of the farm-railway be the same (-i feet 
8|- inches) as the great lines of the kingdom, why should not 

' B 2 



4 



INTEODUCTIOX. 



brancli lines "be constructed from tlie railway to tlie farms 
along the side of the roads ? or on anj other convenient 
plan ? so that the farmer might be able to get a truck from 
the head of his field on to the main line of railway, and thus 
convey it to a near, or most distant market, without the 
trouble and expense of frequent shifting. 

I do not consider the railway system of this country half 
developed until there are railways instead of parish roads, 
instead of green lanes, and instead of the road at the field's- 
head. 

Of course it is not to be supposed that these railways are 
all to be constructed in the same substantial manner in 
which the great trunk-lines are made, the cost must diminish 
from the passenger line progressively with its traffic and 
importance, until it is laid down the middle of the field as 
by ]Mr. Croskill at 35. Gd. per yard. 



MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS EOE DRAINAGE. 5 



CHAPTER I. 

MACHI25"EET AND IMPLEMENTS EOR DRAINAGE. 

Peetious to any operations being commenced for culti- 
vating land, it is necessary to thorouglily free it from water. 
Land is injuriously affected by water in several different 
ways, and different machines and implements are used 
under different circumstances. 

1st. In tbe case wbere land is situate so low as to be 
permanently or occasionally flooded, by freslies from rivers 
running tkrougli it, liigb. tides, or other such circum- 
stances. 

2ndly. Prom the nature of the subsoil being so impermeable 
as not to allow the water that has fallen from the clouds to 
descend through it, consequently the land, or cultivated soil, 
remains for a long time in a saturated and overcharged state, 
utterly unfit for growing plants. 

Srdly. Prom water rising upwards through the soil as 
springs, caused by the pressure or height of the water in 
some other place ; and 4thly. "Wliere the upper surface of the 
soil is beaten by the action of the rain into a puddled covering, 
in which all the interstices are stopped up, and consequently 
no air can get down to the plants. 

In the cases of land being subjected to be flooded by the 
sea or rivers, the operations are on a mucn larger scale than 
the others, and should always be executed by the Civil 
Engineer. Many works of this description have been 
executed in England, and the whole country of HoUand is 
protected from such inroads by an immense number of 



6 MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS EOR DRAINAGE . 

most admirable and scientific works. In England the dis- 
trict called the Eens is situated in the manner alluded to, 
and the whole owes its cultivated existence to the ef&ciency 
of the great drainage works there executed, the foremost of 
which is the Grreat Bedford Level. The works usually 
constructed in these cases are, Pirst, an arrangement of 
earth-banks for keeping the waters into their proper 
channels ; secondly, sluices and gates for allowing the 
waters contained within the banks to run out to the lowest 
level that can be obtained ; and, thirdly, engines and 
machines for lifting out the water that remains, and that is 
lower than the natural outfall, into higher channels. Sluices 
(or hatches, as they are generally called in England), are 
gates for regulating the flow of water ; when of small dimen- 
sions, they usually consist of two upright pieces of timber, 
the lower ends of which are tenoned into a sill, and the 
upper end secured in the same way into a flat piece of timber. 

On the inside face of the two upright pieces are cut 
grooves perfectly true. In this groove, a gate made of a 
series of boards, of the width between the grooves, and 
fastened to an upright piece of timber, as shown in fig. 1. 
This gate slides up and down in the grooves as required. 
The centre upright has a number of holes bored through it, 
and the cross-piece or cap, one. When the gate has been 
lifted up to the necessary height, an iron pin is passed 
through the hole in the stem of the gate, and into the cor- 
responding one in the cap ; it is thus held in any position 
that may be thought necessary. 

"When these works are large and the gates become heavy, 
it is necessary to contrive some means of lifting them, as it 
could be no longer done by merely hoisting them with the 
hand. A rack is then placed upon the stem, and a pinion 
properly fixed upon the cap, the teeth of which gear with 
those which form the rack, a winch is applied, and the gate 
is raised or lowered with great facility. 



MACHINERY AXD I5IPLEMENTS EOU DllAIN'AGE. 7 



"When a very large qnantity of water has to be dealt TvitH, a 
series of gates are placed in a row ; thej are constructed in 

Fig. 1. 




a manner precisely tlie same, only tlie framing lias to be 
braced and secured in a stronger manner. 

A series of small band-gates, called shuttles or flashes, are 
sometimes placed on the top of the larger gates. The prin- 
cipal conditions to be observed in the construction of these 
works are, that they shall be an effectual gnarantee against 
floods, or any sudden rise of the water in the channels. 
They should be as permanently constructed as possible, and 
be made to work easily, which they very seldom do, and a 
great deal of hammering and heaving with crowbars takes 
place when they are required to be opened ; this is more 
especially the case when the gates are made too wide, which 
they often are ; great care should also be taken in making a 
sound function with the banks and the wings of the sluice- 
frames above, so that no water may find its way through 
from the back. As much water as will, havinof flowed throuo^h 
the sluices, the next operation is to hft the remainder up to 
that level, that it also may be got rid of. A great variety 
of machines have been used for this pui-pose in ancient and 



S ilACHINEEY AXD IlIPLE^iIEXTS TOE, DEAIXAGE. 

modern times, but those now generally in nse are either 
tlie Dutch Scoop Wheel or the Cornish Pumping Engine. 
Throughout Holland scoop-wheels may be seen in constant 




SECTION OF DUTCH DEAIXIXG WrN-DillLL AXD SCOOP-WHEEL. 

use, draining the polders. They are chiefly driven by wind- 
mills. Pig. 2 is a section of one of these draining machines, 



IVTACHIXERY AND IMPLEMENTS FOE, DEAiyAGE. 9 

showing the manner of driving the wheeh The mill is con- 
structed similar to an ordinary flour-mill, but the upright 
shaft is carried down to the bottom floor, where a bevel 
wheel is placed upon it, and another on the shaft of the 
scoop-wheel, to which it communicates the motion. The 
scoop-wheel, or flash-wheel, as it is often called, is con- 
structed of a series of flat blades, radiating, but not from the 
centre of a shaft similar to ordinary water-wheels, the blades 
work in a chase which they accurately fit, and in their 
revolutions force the water before them from the lower to 
the higher level, as shown in the annexed section. 

These machines are not economical or efiective in lifting 
the water above the centre of the axle, the loss of water 
between the circumference of the blades and the race 
increases when the speed of revolution diminishes, but this 
loss may be reduced to the lowest point by making the 
blades rectangular, and of a width equal to double their 
height. In the fen districts of Lincolnshire, IMr. Glynn 
has erected some powerful machinery of this natiu-e. One 
of these, erected on the Ten-mile Eank, near Little Port, in 
the Isle of Ely, is driven by an 80 horse-power engine, with 
a wheel 40 feet diameter. The Deeping Yen, near Spalding, 
with an area of 25,000 acres, is drained by two engines of 
80 and 60 horse-power. The 80 horse-power engine works 
a wheel of 28 feet diameter, with float-boards 5^ feet by 5 
feet, and moving with a velocity of 6 feet per second on 
the average, when the engine has its full dip ; and conse- 
quently the sectional area of the blades lifting the water is 
27^ feet. The quantity discharged per second is 165 cubic 
feet, or about 4i tons, raised 5 feet in height. 

On the bank of the Old Bedford river, which empties into 
the Ouse at Salter's Lode Sluice, is the Manea and WaLnea 
District Engiae. It is of 60 horse-power ; the diameter of 
the flash-wheel 32 feet, width of floats, or lodes, 2 feet 
9 inches, making 3|- revolutions in a minute. It drains 

B 3 



MACHINEEY AND IMPLEMENTS FOR DRAINAGE. 11 



8685 acres, tlie cost of coals being 7c?. per acre. The 
Sutton and Mepal Engine is built a little higher up on the 
same bank, and throws its water into a canal called the 
Counter Drain, which empties itself into the Bedford river. 
It is 80 horse-power; the diameter of the wheel being 
32 feet, and the width of the lodes 4 feet, making revo- 
lutions per minute. It drains about 10,348 acres, at a cost 
of 7 Id. per acre for fuel, &c. The District Drainage Tax is 
from 4^. to 6s. per acre. 

rig. 3 represents a section of the bank, and the arrange- 
ments for driving the scoop-wheel, erected at Loch Toyle, 
by Joseph Gibbs, Esq. The wheel in this case was con- 
structed of wrought iron, and was 18 feet in diameter. 

The engines are usually provided with three boilers ; a 
40 horse engine has three boilers of 30 horse-power each, 
two being used while one is being cleansed or repaired. It 
is proved by practice that two boilers of 30 horse-power will 
generate steam for a 40 horse-power engine, much more 
economically than one 40 horse-power boiler, caused chiefly 
by the furnace not being required to be so often disturbed in 
the one case as the other. The cost of a steam engine,, 
including the building and fixing, for purposes of drainage, 
is about 1001. per horse-power. 

The engines we have hitherto described are all employed 
in lifting water, by giving motion to a scoop-wheel, but in 
many cases steam engines have been erected for the purpose 
of lifting water by means of pumps. Of these there are a 
great variety. We can have only space here to glance at 
the most remarkable that have been invented for the purpose, 
and that have been foimd in practice to answer. By far the 
largest and most justly celebrated of these are the engines 
erected for the drainage of the Grreat Lake of Haarlem in 
Holland. 

As I have before observed, the low lying lands of Holland 
are all drained by the use of scoop- wheels, worked by water 



12 MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS FOB, DRAINAGE. 

power. These mills are the pride of the Dutch engineers, 
and certainly they are very fine machines and exceedingly 
efiective, and until it was proposed to drain the Haarlem 
lake, were considered to be a far superior method to any 
other in use; but two English engineers, Joseph Gibbs 
and Arthur Deane, both having had considerable experience 
in the Cornish engine, seeing that such a machine would 
be far better adapted for the purpose, undertook the very 
difficult task of proving that fact to the Dutch commission 
of engineers who had been appointed to report upon the best 
method of draining the lake ; and after a long and tedious 
inquiry, slow even for Dutchmen, they at length came to 
the determination to adopt the plans of the EngHsh engineers, 
and one scarcely knows which feat deserves the most credit, 
the persuading the Dutchman to give up his wind-mill and 
scoop-wheel, or the actually getting the water out of the 
lake (as by this time it is) . 

Messrs. Gibbs and Deane's plan was to construct three 
large engines on the Cornish principle, but of peculiar 
design, particularly suited to the character of this work. 

The area of the lake of Haarlem is equal to 45,230 acres, 
and its average depth about fourteen feet, the cubic contents 
of the whole being equal to about 800 millions of tons of 
water. 

The longest side of the lake is parallel with the sea, and 
separated from it only by a narrow strip of land ; the three 
engines were placed at difi"erent parts, so as to have suitable 
outfalls. They are severally called the Leeghwater, the 
Croquis, and the Y an Lynden ; these names given to the 
engines were those of three celebrated engineers who had at 
various times interested themselves in the drainage of this 
great lake. 

Of these three engines the "Leeghwater" was first 
erected, with suitable houses and pumping machinery. The 
first step in this work was to construct an earthen dam of a 



MACHI^*EP.Y AXD DIPLE3IEXTS FOU DEAIXAGE. 13 



semicircular form, enclosing about acre of the area 
of the lake, and adjoining its bank. The space inclosed 
bj this dam was then cleared of water by a small steam- 
engine, and the foundations for the houses and machinery 
commenced. These foundations consist of 1-iOO piles, 
which were driven to the depth of 4:0 feet, into a stratum 
of hard sand. Upon these piles, and at the depth of 21 feet 
below the sui'face of the lake, a strong platform was laid, 
and upon this a wall, pierced with arches, was constructed, 
at the distance of 22 feet from the intended position of the 
engine-house. Upon this wall a thick flooring of oak was 
laid, between the wall and the engine-house. The pimips 
rest upon the platform, beneath and opposite to the arches, 
and their heads pass through the floor just described, 
standing about 3 feet above its level. Into the space left 
between the engine-house and outer wall, the water raised 
by the pumps is received, and discharged fi^om it on either 
side of the boiler-house, through sluice gates, into the canals 
conducting to the sea sluices. The general arrangement of 
the engine, boilers, pumps, and sluices will be understood 
from fig. 30, in which a represents the engine ; b the boiler- 
house ; c c the pumps ; and n d the sluices through which 
the water is discharged. The engine has two steam cylinders, 
one within the other, united at the bottom, but with a clear 
space of Ij inches between them at the top under the 
cover, which is common to them both. The large cylinder 
has an annular piston, both pistons are connected by one 
main piston-rod (of the internal cylinder) 12 inches diameter, 
and four small rods (of the annular piston) 4|- inches 
diameter each, with a great cap or cross head, having a 
circular body 9 feet 6 inches in diameter, and formed to 
receive the ends of the balance beams of the piunps. The 
pumps are eleven in number, and each of them 63 inches in 
diameter, with a cast ii^on balance beam turning upon a 
centre in the wall of the engine-house, one end of which is 



14 liLlCHIXERY A^'D IMPLEilE^'TS FOR DEADs'AGE. 

connected with the great cap of the engine, the other to the 
puinp rod. Each pump rod is of wrought iron, 3 inches ia 
diameter, and 16 feet long, with an additional length of 14; 
feet of patent chaia cable attached to the pump piston. 



Fig. 4. 




PLAK. 



The steam and pump pistons have a stroke of 10 feet in. 
length; each pump is calculated to deliver 6 02 tons of 
water per stroke, or 68-22 tons for the eleven pumps. The 
quantity actually raised is found to be about 63 tons. The 
action of the engine is as follows : — The steam being 
admitted, the piston and great cap are thereby raised, and 
the pump pistons make their down- stroke. At the top of 
the steam- stroke a pause of one or two seconds is made, to 



MACHINEEY AND IMPLEMENTS EOE DllAINAGE. 15 

enable the Yalves of the pump piston to fall out, so that, on 
the down-stroke of the steam piston, they may take their 
load of water without shock. In order to sustain the great 
cap and its dead weight during this interval, an hydraulic 
apparatus is brought into use, which consists of yertical 
cylinders, into which water is admitted, forcing upwards two 
plunger holes which sustain the cap, the water being 
preyented from returning by spherical yalves fitted at the 
lower parts of the cylinders. The arrangement of the two 
steam cylinders is adapted in order to bring the load under 
immediate command, the varying character of which would 
othervdse require occasional alteration of the dead weight to 
overcome it, which would involve great delays and incon- 
venience. By the use of the two cylinders, the dead weight 
raised by the small piston does not usually exceed 85 tons, 
the extra power required being derived from the pressure of 
the return steam at the down-stroke upon the annular 
piston. A skilful regulation of the expansion and pressure 
of steam in the small cylinder thus enables the engine-man 
to provide for all cases of difference of resistance without 
the delay of altering the dead weight. Eespecting the power 
of the " Leegh water," it appeared from experiments con- 
ducted by a sub-conmiittee of the commission, that the duty 
was equal to that of raising 75 million lb. one foot high by the 
consumption of 941b. of good Welsh coal, and exerting a net 
effective force of 350 horse-power. The lift being 13 feet, 
the engine works the eleven pumps simultaneously, the net 
weight of water lifted being 81*7 tons, and the discharge 
63 tons per stroke. "When the site of the lake is cultivated, 
the surface of the water in the drains wiH be kept at 18 
inches below the general level of the bed, but during floods 
the waters of the upper level of the country will be raised 
above their usual height, and the lift will be increased to 
17 feet. To test the power of the engine to meet these 
cases, the eleven pumps were worked simultaneously without 



16 MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS FOR DRAINAGE. 

regard to economy of fuel, and 109 tons net of water were 
raised per stroke to the height of 10 feet. The boilers of 
the " Leegh water " engine are five in numher, cylindrical, 
and each 30 feet long, and 6 feet in diameter, with a central 
fire tube 4 feet in diameter. Under the boilers a return 
flue passes to the front and then divides along the sides. 
Over the boilers, and communicating with all of them, is a 
steam chamber 42 feet in length, and 4 feet 6 inches in 
diameter, from which a steam pipe 2 feet in diameter, 
conveys the steam to the engine. The consump- 
tion of fuel is 2 i lb. of coals per horse-power per hour, 
with working with a net efi'ect equal to the power of 
350 horses. The cost of the " Leegh water " and machinery 
was 21,000Z. It has been calculated that the entire cost of 
the works for draining the lake will be 100,000/. less than 
would have been incurred by adopting the ordinary system 
of steam-engines and hydraulic machinery, and 170,000Z. 
less than the expense of applying the system of windmills 
hitherto prevailing in Dutch drainage. The annual cost of 
the three methods is thus estimated : — By three engines 
such as the " Leeghwater," 4500Z. ; by windmills, 61007. ; 
and by ordinary steam engines, 10,000Z. Besides the ordi- 
nary plans of pumps attached to Cornish engines, there 
have of late been introduced a great variety of pumps, among 
the most remarkable of which are Appold's and Gwinne's 
pumps. 

Mr. Appold's constituted one of the principal attractions 
in the department of machinery in motion at the Great 
Exhibition of 1851, and might be seen constantly delivering, 
at a considerable elevation, a powerful stream of water, 
which was not a little refreshing during the hottest portion 
of weather. Mr. Appold's pump is similar in every respect i 
to the mill known as "Whitelaw's mill, but the action is 
reversed : in the former, a column of water descending by 
pressure on the horizontal wheel, causes it to revolve, and 



MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS EOR DRAINAGE. 17 

it is then used as a motive power ; but in tlie latter case, 
some other motive power is used to cause the horizontal 
wheel to revolve, and lift the water, it thus becomes a 
pump of considerable power. Mr. Appold's wheel was only 
12 inches in diameter ; it received the water on each side, 
through apertures of 6 inches diameter, and had a central 
disc or diaphragm perpendicular to the axis, intersecting the 
vanes, forming, as it were, a double wheel, revolving between 
two cheeks, that projected from opposite sides of the 
reservoir. 

The curvature of the vanes was found to be a matter of 
considerable importance, as it would discharge, when so 
constructed, more than double the quantity of water in the 
same time, and with the same power, as one constructed 
with straight vanes. 

A trial was made with Mr. Appold's pump against two 
others of the same size, the one with straight vanes, 
inclined at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other with radial 
arms — the following results were obtained : — 





REVOLUTIONS 
PER MINUTE. 


GALLONS 
RAISED PER 
MINUTE. 


HEIGHTH RAISED. 


USEFUL 
EFFECT. 


MR. appold's wheel 


792 


1664 


18 feet 8 in. 


•649 




788 


1236 


19 J, 4 „ 


•680 


INCLINED VANES . 


694 


560 


18 „ 0 „ 


•394 


JJ JJ • • 


690 


736 


18 „ 0 „ 


•434 


RADIAL VANES 


624 


369 


18 „ 0 „ 


•232 


!J JJ • 


720 


474 


18 „ 9 „ 


•243 



THOEOUGH DRAINING. 

The water at the outfall having been lowered either by 
deepening the channels or lifting the water by some of the 
means we have described, another department of draining is 
commenced, called thorough drainmg. This consists in 
laying across the land at intervals, and at a few feet below 



18 MACHIKERY AND IMPLEMENTS FOIL DRAINAGE. 



the surface, lines of tiles constructed of sucli shapes as that, 
when they are laid end to end, they form a continuous 
pipe, and being made of porous material the water passes 
through them, and in at the joints, then finding a ready 
course through to the main drains. These pipes are made 
of a variety of shapes, sometimes forming a perfect pipe in 
one piece ; and at others they are composed of two pieces, 
the upper one shaped like a horse-shoe and laid upon a flat 
piece called a sole. These are very rarely used now, a 
circular pipe being found to be the best form and the most 
easily constructed. 

The tiles with soles were the first used, and, as no 
machinery then existed for constructing them, doubtless 
that form was best as it was easily made, being two flat 
pieces made like plain tiles first, and then one piece was 
bent over a saddle-shaped block of wood, and after being 
dried was burnt in that shape, and when laid in the ground 
formed an excellent drain ; but as machinery came into use 
other forms were adopted, and the sole or bottom of the tile 
became a part of it. 

A variety of ingenious machines have at various times 
been patented for constructing drain tiles, and although 
many of them exhibit great mechanical ingenuity and are 
very interesting, we cannot afi'ord space in this little book 
to describe more than one or two that have come into general 
use : of these the most known are the Tweedale machines, 
Beart's, Ainslie's, Hart's, and Clayton's. 

The last-mentioned machine I can recommend as one of 
the most efficient and generally useful of them all. I know 
many persons who use them, and generally they give 
satisfaction. They are made entirely of iron, and adapted to 
manufacture tiles either vertically or horizontal; which 
is an important advantage, as in the manufacture of large 
pipes they never keep their shapes when passing over 
horizontal rollers, consequently they have a flat side, and 



MACHINEEY AJ^D IMPLEMENTS FOE- DRAINAGE. 19 



from being so missliapen will not fit properly when laid end 
to end. 

Most tile machines act upon the principle of forcing the 
clay through discs, in which are openings cut to the shape 
of the tile, as seen in cross section. The various ways in 
which this simple operation is performed, constituting their 
peculiarity, Clayton's is simple, strong, and compact, and 
equally well suited for all kinds of work. 

The clay is contained in two large cylinders attached to 
the frame by swing brackets, so that no delay takes place by 
filling, one cylinder being replenished while the other is 
being discharged. The internal shaft-work is formed of 
wrought iron ; the clay is forced out of the cylinder through 
the perforations in the discs by a piston, which is acted 
upon by gearing so arranged that it takes twenty-five turns 
of the winch to force the piston down and only four to lift 
it up again. The cylinders are fitted with perforated metal 
plates or gratings, of various sizes, for screening the clay 
from all stones, roots, or other extraneous matter that would 
be injurious to the formation of the tiles. Two men and a 
boy will make with this machine, if the clay be in the best 
order, about 10,000 feet of pipe per day, working piecework. 

A great variety of machines on a similar principle to 
Clayton's are manufactured by various persons, all con- 
structing the tiles by forcing clay through discs : in some 
the cylinders are horizontal, and in others vertical. 

A great impetus was given to the manufacture of drain 
tiles by machinery by the invention of a tile-making machine 
by Mr. Beart, of Grodmanchester, Huntingdonshire. This 
gentleman, a very ingenious and excellent mechanic, con- 
structed a tile-works on a large scale, and conducted aU his 
operations in a very superior and methodical manner. The 
consequence was an immense saving in cost of manufacture. 
A statement by Mr. Eeart of his machine and the system 
pursued will be found in the " Journal of the Eoyal 



20 



MACHINES AND TOOLS FOR LAYING TILES. 



Agricultural Society," vol. ii. part 1. A saying of 25. 6cl. 
per thousand was at once made by the introduction of the 
machine, and a greater facility giyen for the execution of a 
larger amount of work with greater regularity. This 
machine was not for making pipe tiles, but intended to 
facilitate the making of horse-shoe tiles, which are formed 
of one piece bent as before described oyer a piece of wood 
called a horse. 

MACHINES AND TOOLS TOE, LAYING TILES. 

Only one machine is in use at the present time for 
effecting this object. This is the one known as Fowler's 
draining machine, and is the inyention of John Fowler, jun., 
of Bristol, who received a silyer medal from the Eoyal 
Agricultural Society of England, at the meeting at Exeter 
in 1850, for his inyention. It was described by the inyentor 
as a mole or ]}lug plough for making a hole in the soil at 
depths yarying from two to four feet, and at the same time 
drawing into the hole thus made any draining material, such 
as earthen or wooden pipes, straw, ropes, &c. 

There is an apparatus attached for raising or sinking the 
plough, so as to lay a leyel drain under an uneyen surface : 
it is drawn by the power of a windlass, and one horse's 
power exerted there will moye the plough a yard in twenty 
seconds at a depth of 2 feet 6 inches. Three horses, four 
men, and six boys will keep two ploughs going, and do 
4000 feet in a day at a depth of 3 feet. 

A hole requires to be dug for the machine at eyery 
hundred yards, or six for an acre. 

This implement, as might be expected, was an object of 
much attention at the meeting, and yarious were the specu- 
lations of yisitors and the judges as to the difficulty it would 
experience in laying tiles in stony and grayelly soils. The 
machine was again exhibited at the Grreat Exhibition in 



MACHINES AND TOOLS FOR LAYING TILES. 21 



Hyde Park in 1851, having Leen considerably modified and 
j strengthened. Public trials were also made with it on 
! "Wormwood Scrubs. 

I am not aware of its being in use anywhere at the 
present time, nor do I think it in its present state at all 
adapted for laying tiles on the generality of soils. There 
II are situations, doubtless, as bogs, where a machine of this 
l' character might be used with advantage ; but wherever it is i 
I the soil must be free from stones, either in beds or as i 
boulders, the upper surface of the land very even, and the 
tiles of first-rate quality. The principle upon which the 
j machine acts is very simple. The reader will imagine a deep t 

knife fixed under the beam of a wheel-plough ; at the bottom 
• of this knife a pointed piece of iron fixed horizontally ; at ! 
! the back of this piece of pointed iron is attached a chain or 
' rope, and upon this rope are threadled, one after another, 
lengths of the pipes or tiles to be laid ; a strong windlass 
attached to horse-gear is placed at a distance in front of the 
plough, and a chain from the barrel of the windlass is 
attached to the end of the plough-beam. A hole is then 
dug to allow the deep knife and pointed iron to enter the 
ground at the intended depth ; the plough is then drawn 
forward, the knife cutting the earth through and the iron 
point making a passage for the string of tiles to follow. 
When the plough has arrived at the windlass the rope is 
I hauled out, and the tiles of course remain properly laid, end 
to end, and with greater accuracy than could be done by the 
ordinary means. To ascertain the state in which the tiles 
! are left by the machine, a trench has been afterwards cut 
and the tiles examined, and invariably they have been found 
f to be very properly laid. 

It appears, therefore, that as far as the actually laying 
tiles at moderate depths in certain soils, this machine 
answers the purpose intended; but there are so many 
circumstances that would interfere in different localities, 

I. 



22 GIBBS^S DRAINING 3IACHINE. j 

as to render it very doubtful Tvhetlier it can become a I 
macbine of general application. 

GIBES'S DEAINING ALACHINE. 

Some feAY years since a machine was placed in mv bands I 
bv Mr. Josb. Gibbs, an eminent civil engineer, wbicb be - 
bad bimself invented and constructed, for tbe purpose of ' 
laying tiles witbout tbe necessity of opening tbe ground to i 
a greater Tvidtb tban tbe cbase in wbicb tbe tile itself bad to 
be laid. I tried a variety of experiments, and it gave tbe 
greatest possible satisfaction. An experienced drain-tile 
layer, wbo assisted in tbem, assured me be could lay tiles 
as well witb its assistance as wben tbe ground was opened 
wide enougb for bim to stand on tbe bottom of tbe opening. I 

Of course it could not be expected tbat tbis, tbe first 
attempt at tbe construction of such a machine, should be 
perfect, and answer equally well in all situations ; but of tbis 
I am certain, that bad the inventor followed up the subject a 
little further, a very great benefit would have been confered 
on agriculture generally by' giving much greater facility for 
the laying deep drains ; and I am still in hopes, when less 
pressed with other business, he will make perfect this 
admirable machine. 

deainer's tools. 

Tbe ordinary manner in which the drain-tiles are laid is 
by cutting an opening in the ground, gradually narrowing 
in towards the bottom so as to require as little soil as 
possible to be removed. To effect tbis in the best manner, 
the tools or spades must be made in sets, the smallest being 
no wider than the tile to be laid. 

These are made by most implement-makers of the most 
approved forms to suit the diff'erent depths. ]\Ir. Clayton, of 



THE PLOUGH. 



23 



the Atlas "Works, Dorset Square, whose tile-making machine 
we have before alluded to, manufactures very superior tools 
for cutting the gripes in different soils, either clay or gravel. 

These tools are made with ground-polished blades, and 
upon scientific principles as to shape ; they are formed 
with cycloidal blades, whicli gives strength and lightness, 
and produces the best form of cutting-edge, as well as 
allowing the clay to leave the tool more easily than is the case 
with those made in the ordinary manner. Besides the tools 
for excavating, one or two others are necessary for cleaning 
out the bottom and laying the tiles ; but however well the 
tiles may be laid, the work is inefficiently done if the drains 
have not been properly set out and the levels accurately laid. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE PLOUGH. 

The plough is the most important and valuable implement, 
and the one most generally used in agricultural operations ; 
1 being the fundamental implement, it is common to all ages 
and countries. Mention of it is made in the earliest writings 
upon agriculture ; indeed, its introduction must have been 
coeval with the first attempts at cultivating land and raising 
corn. The tiUage of land is supposed to have been first 
practised in imitation of the effects produced from deposits of 
sand and mud by retiring rivers after floods and inundations. 
These effects must have been observed by the inhabitants, as 

^ herbage springs up spontaneously, as soon as it is left dry, 

! and subjected to the heat of the sun's rays. 

The peculiar characteristics of certain portions of Egypt 
would favour the hypothesis that corn was first cultivated 

, n that land, as it is spoken of in the earliest times as so 

I' 



24 



THE PLOUGH. 



fruitful in grain as to be considered the granary of tlie 
adjacent countries. 

Sir Isaac Newton and Stillingfleet both considered that 
corn was first cultivated on the banks of the JSTile in Upper 
Egypt, where the waters only occasionally covered the land, 
leaving it ample time to profit by the deposits of mud and 
sand, and put forth the plants peculiar to it. The inha- 
bitants, observing this hint from nature, that nothing more 
was necessary than to scatter the seed in this soil, and that 
it would then vegetate and bring forth fruit in abundance, 
endeavoured to imitate it by cleaning the ground of weeds, 
and mixing the rich sedimentary deposit of the river with 
pure sand. 

To effect this at all, an implement of some kind must 
have been used, and that was the first plough. Antiquaries 
have agreed that this must have been a sort of pick, and little 
else than the merest scratching of the soil would be neces- 
sary under such circumstances as they were placed in. 
Yarious representations are in existence of very early ploughs 
of this kind. 

As other lands gradually became cultivated, an improved 
form of plough would doubtless be constructed to meet the 
requirements of local circumstances, as agriculture was carried 
to a great pitch of perfection in Eg}^3t. Of this the numerous 
traces remaining to this day bear ample testimony, such as 
the banks and canals in lower Egypt, especially in the Delta, 
traces of no less than eighty canals exist for the purposes of ' 
drainiug and irrigating. We find the plough (1 Sam. xiii. 20) 
had a share and coulter, indicating a considerable advance in 
the construction of an efficient implement. From Egypt 
the art of cultivating the soil found its way into Greece, the 
aboriginal Pelasgi being civilised by colonies from that 
country. The little that is known of the practice of the 
Greeks is obtained from the works of Hesiod, called " Works 
and Days." «Ee was contemporary with Homer, and culti- 



THE PLOUGH. 



25 



vated a farm at Askra, at the foot of Mount Helicon in 
Boeotia, and grumbles like any modern farmer at tlie badness 
of his land, which, he says, is too hard in summer and too 
soft in winter, and never very good at any time. I should 
fancy his occupation was a piece of good rank stiff clay, as 
little loved at the present time as in the days when he wrote. 
He describes the ploughs of his time as being composed of 
three principal parts : the share-beam (which is to be made 
of oak), the draught-pole, and the plough-tail (to be made of 
elm or bay), and the whole to be securely fastened with nails 
and pegs ; he also recommends that a spare plough be kept 
ready to be used in case of accidents. 

Moman JPloioglis. — Of these a great variety must have been 
in use, as they are mentioned by various Soman writers on 
agriculture, as having peculiar characteristics adapted to the 
particular soil or description of work to be done. Mr. Adam 
Dickson, in his work on the husbandry of the ancients, says, 
" It is probable that I shall be considered as very partial to 
the ancients, if I do not allow the moderns to excel them in 
the construction of their ploughs. We are not indeed so 
well acquainted with the ancient ploughs as to be able to 
make a just comparison. I shall only observe, that from the 
few passages in the rustic authors concerning them, it 
appears that the ancients had all the different kinds of 
ploughs that we have now in Europe, though not perhaps so 
exactly constructed. They had ploughs without mould- 
boards, and ploughs with mould-boards ; they had ploughs 
with coulters, and ploughs without coulters ; they had 
ploughs without wheels, and ploughs with wheels ; they had 
broad-pointed shares, and narrow-pointed shares ; they even 
had what I have not yet met amongst the moderns, shares 
not only with sharp sides and points, but also with high- 
raised cutting tops. Were we well acquahited with the 
construction of all these, perhaps it would be found that the 
improvements made by the moderns in this article are not 

VOL. Ill, 0 



V 



26 THE PLOUGH. 

SO great as many persons are apt to imagine." "W^itliout 
quite following Mr. Dickson to the full extent of his 
admh^ation of ancient implements of tillage, we must admit 
that very considerable perfection had been attained in 
the construction of the plough, judging by the numerous 
descriptions found in the works of the different authors. 
Cato mentions two ploughs, one called the Eomanicum, 
proper for stiff land ; and the Campanicum, as adapted for a 
light soil. Yarro mentions a plough -v^'hich must have been 
similar to an ordinary modern ridge-plough ; it was used for 
ploughing in seeds, and was fitted with two mould-boards. 
Pliny speaks of fitting a piece of board to an ordinary 
plough, in order to adapt it to the purpose of ploughing in 
seed. Palladius speaks of a plough for ribbing up land when 
the water lays much in the furrow, in wet seasons. 

Ploughs answering to the descriptions of the classic 
authors may now be found in different parts of Italy and 
Sicily ; and in yaricus parts of Eiu-ope and Asia are ploughs 
still in use of the most primitive forms, and very much 
inferior to what I imagine the ancient Eoman ploughs to 
have been, judging by the descriptions handed down to us. 
The Araire of the South of Prance is an implement of this 
rude kind, merely dividing the soil, and pushing it in front 
of it. The plough of Asterobothnia, in Scandinavia, is often 
drawn by one man, and is httle more than one of the ancient 
scratching- tools first used in Egypt, and represented upon the 
images of Osiris. The plough of the Morea of G reece is simi- 
lar to the fluke of an anchor, and is drawn by two asses or one 
horse. The Syrian, the Persian, and the Indian and Chinese 
ploughs are all of the same character, being merely scratch- 
ing implements, and scarcely desening the name of ploughs. 

The annexed cut represents the modern plough of Castile. 
It is engraved from the original sketch kindly lent me for 
this purpose by my friend, IMr. J. Telbin, and was drawn 
from nature by him, while making sketches in Spain for his 



THE PLOUGH. 



27 



Panorama of the Campaigns of the Duke of Wellington. I 
have preferred giving a cut of this plough to any other, as 
I could reh; on its accuracy, and it is interesting, as showing 
the extremely low state of agriculture in Spain at the present 

Fig. 5. 




moment, it being impossible that any efficient system of 
husbandry can be carried out where such a rude implement 
as this forms the principal feature ; and it is not only in the 
plough that the modern Spaniard is so far behind, even the 
ancient !Roman farmer, much more the modern scientific 
agriculturist, for Jilr. Telbin described to me the manner of 
thrashing, as he saw it practised in Spain in 1850, and which 
is not one bit in advance of the old custom of treading out 
the corn by the feet of oxen. The plough was first intro- 
duced into Britain by the Eomans, and there are many rude 
drawings in existence, representing different kinds of ploughs. 
Some of these are very similar to the Castilian specimen 
shown in the cut, while others, used by the Saxons, are 
shown as haying wheels, and in several cases the horses are 
represented as fastened to the plough by their tails, a bar- 
barous custom that existed in Ireland as late as 1634, for an 
act of the Irish Parliament, 11 & 12 Car. II., c. 15, entitled 
an " Act against plowing by the tayle and prdling wool ofi:' 
living sheep," sets forth, that "Whereas there have been 
for a long time practised in this country a barbarous custome 
of plov^dng, harrowing, drawing, and working witli horses 



28 



THE PLOUGH. 



and other animals by the tayle, %Yherebj the breed of animals 
in the kingdom is much impaired, and great cruelty perpe- 
trated, these practices were henceforward to be considered 
illegal, and the offender subjected to fine and imprisonment." 

No mention is anywhere made in the Bible of ploughs 
being drawn by any other animal than the ox ; an old 
British law forbade the use of other animals than oxen for 
drawing ploughs, and the early English ploughmen were com- 
polled by law to be as able to make their own ploughs as to 
guide them. The implement under these circumstances natu- 
rally remained for a long time in an exceedingly rude state, 
and it was not until the commencement of the seventeenth 
century that anything like an effective implement was con- 
structed. About that time greater attention was paid to 
ao-ricidture in Eno-land, and Dutch eno-ineers came over to 
drain the fen districts. These intelligent people brought with 
them the design of that known as the E-otherham plough, so 
called because the first known to have been constructed in 
England Avas made at E,otherham, by Jos. Eoljambe, under 
tlie direction of the celebrated Walter Blythe, whose works 
we have often elsewhere alluded to. Eor this plough a 
patent was obtained in the year 1730. 

Other accounts state that this plough was made by Lammis, 
upon strictly- mathematical principles, which he had learned 
in Holland — and others, by a person of the name of Pashly, 
who was ploughmaker to Sir Charles Turner, at Elirkleatham. 
The son of this last-named person established a manufactory 
for this plough at B^otherham, and he also is considered by 
some to have been its original inventor. The design of this 
plough had, either from Holland or England, found its way 
to America, and the honour of its inveution is claimed by the 
people of that countr3^ President Jefferson presented an ac- 
count of the principle for constructing a mould-board, first to 
the Institute of Erance, and afterwards to the Board of Agri- 
culture in England, as an original discovery in matliematics. 



THE PLOUGH. 



29 



The liotlierham, or, as it was sometimes called, the Dutch 
plough, was constructed of wood, with the exception of the 
coulter, draught-irons, and share; the mould-board was plated 
with iron, and the sole was also made of the same material. 

The fame of this plough at length extended into localities 
remote from where it was originally constructed ; and as no 
Terj defined form had yet been laid down for it, it may easily 
be imagined, that in the hands of inferior and prejudiced 
workmen it degenerated into a clums}^ and inefficient imple- 
ment, while in other and better hands it was improved and 
altered to suit local circumstances. Arthur Young mentions 
a plough made by an ingenious blacksmith of the name of 
Brand, and which he stated as being superior to any other 
in the kingdom. The Eotherliam plough, having found its 
way into Scotland, was brought under the notice of a most 
ingenious mechanic, named James Small, born in Berwick- 
shire, in the year 1740. This man bestowed a great amount 
of attention to the improvement of ploughs, and in the end 
was enabled to construct one upon a fixed principle, which 
gave it a permanent and uniform character. Small (remarks 
Mr. Slight) appears to have been the first who gave to the 
mould-board and the share a form that could be partially 
imitated by others, whereby following his instructions, 
mould-boards might be multiplied, each possessing the due 
form which he had directed to be given to them. Small's 
improvement chiefly consisted in giving that most important 
feature of the implement, the mould-board, a mathematical 
outline which enabled it to turn the furrows over in an 
equal and regular manner. 



or THE PARTS OF THE PLOUGH. 

. The frame is the centre portion of the implement, to which 
the mould-board, beam, handles, &c., are affixed ; it is now 
nearly always constructed of iron, and although of different 



30 



THE PLOUGH. 



shapes, according to the peculiar description of plough, its 
use is always the same, that is, a solid structure upon which 
to build up the other parts of the instrument, the mould- 
boards, handle, beam, sole, &c., being screwed to it in such 
a manner as to be easily adjusted, or removed if necessary. 

The Beam is a strong bar of iron, or beam of wood, to 
which the animals are yoked, one end of which is securely 
fixed to the plough frame, the coulter is also attached to it. 

The Stilts, or Handles, as the latter name implies, are the 
long pieces of iron or wood held by the ploughman during 
the operation of ploughing, and wliich are so arranged as to 
give him the greatest possible control over the implement in 
directing its course, and preserving the depth and accuracy 
of the work. The one on the right hand side, as the plough- 
man stands at work, is called the little stilt ; this in many 
ploughs is a continuation of the beam and body of the 
plough in a straight line. 

The left hand one is called the great stilt ; both these are 
attached securely to the plough frame, and often are con- 
tinuations of the beam, and separated by the stretcher, bolts, 
and stays. 

The Bridle, Muzzle, or Bloiigh Head, is a contrivance placed 
at the outer end of the beam, and to which the horses are 
yoked. It is constructed in a variety of ways, but the object 
sought to be obtained in all is the same, that is, to give a ready 
means of adjusting the line of draught so as to cause it to work 
steadily, and at the proper depth, by giving it, as it is called, 
more or less earth; this is eflected by means of a moveable 
portion of the plough head called the halce, and which allows 
of the draught-shackle being altered vertically, more upwards 
or downwards, or laterally to the right or left. The bridle 
is differently constructed by different makers, but the usual 
plan is to make the hake in the arch of a circle, and with a 
pin secure it in its place, while the draught-chain is regu- 
lated in notches cut in the fore part of it. 



THE PLOUGH. 



31 



The Coulter is a large knife, made very strong, of iron and 
steel ; it is an important part of the implement, and requires 
considerable care in its adjustment. Its use is to cut or 
sever vertieallj the seam or piece of earth through which 
the plough is to pass ; it is made sharp on the front side, 
and so strong as not to give or bend in anj vray while in use. 
The side of the coulter next the land is perfectly iiat ; the 
other side tapers towards the back. To give the necessary 
thickness and strength, it is attached to the beam of the 
plough by its upper end, which is made round for that 
purpose ; it is not set perpendicular, but at an angle, gene- 
rally of about 55° with the ground ; but dilferent kinds of 
land, and the same land under different circumstances, 
require the coulter to be set at various angles, sometimes 
very much forward, and at others so far back as to be 
slightly in the rear of the point of the share, the point 
being f of an inch above the share, and slightly on the ]and 
side of it. The manner in which the coulter is secured' to 
the beam is different in the various descriptions of ploughs. 
The ordinary old-fashioned plan is by a wedge ; but this 
was very inefficient, difficult, and uncertain. Messrs. 
Eansome, and other makers, adopt a principle of adjust- 
ment which gets over much of the difficulty. Messrs. 
Hensman have a screw and lever, which is attached to the 
side of the beam ; and thus the coulter is set more forward 
or backward as may be required. 

Tlie Soch, or Share, is that part which cuts the slice of 
earth horizontally ; it is fixed into a projecting portion of 
the lower part of the plough body, called the sole or slade, 
which is a moveable piece secured to the under side of the 
frame. 

Plough-shares are not always of the same form, being 
more or less curved on the face, and longer or shorter 
pointed. 

Plough-shares were formerly made of wrought iron, but 



THE PLOUGH. 



in 1785, tlie late Eoberfc Eansome, ot Ipswich, obtaiaed a 
patent for constructing " shares of cast iron." 

This was a most important improvement, and caused all 
parts of the plough to he equally improved by the same 
gentleman and others ; and in 1803, Eobert Eansome stili 
further improved the manufacture of cast iron shares, by 
applying a case-hardening process to them. They are now 
manufactured by the firm of Eansome & Co., of Ipswich, 
in large quantities. Their improvements consist in case- 
hardening the under side the thickness of -J^ or I- of an inch , 
thus resembling the effect of ]Dlacuig there a layer of steel. 
The lower part, from its hardness, wears slowly, while the 
upper part grinds quickly away. A uniform sharp edge 
is thus constantly kept. 

The Mould-hoard is now invariably a plate of cast iron, 
screwed to the plough frame, and is also called the turn- 
furrow, or ^^Test. 

This term originally applied to only a portion of the 
mould-board, and was probably the wrest of the ancient 
plough which turned aside the earth, after it had been cut 
by the coulter. The part called the wrest, in the Kentish 
plough, is simply a bar of wood. 

The office of the modern mould-board is to receive the 
piece of earth upon its fore end after it has been cut by 
the coulter from the side, and from the bottom by the share, 
and then turn it over continuously to a fixed angle, which it 
does by its peculiar curved form, these cuiwes being con- 
tinued from the mould-board by the form of the box end of 
the share to its extreme point. 

It is upon the correct form of this part of the implement 
that the accuracy, ease, and excellence of the ploughing will 
depend. The largest amount of attention, therefore, has 
been devoted to it ; and desii^able as it is that some fixed 
principle should be laid down as applicable to all forms of 
mould-boards, it has not as yet been accomplished, though 



THE PLOUGH. 



33 



tlie principles by wliicli it is governed have been investigated 
and discussed by a great number of scientific and talented 
individuals, from Small's time till now. Among these may be 
mentioned, Eailey, Gray, Jefferson, Clymer, E-ansome, 
"Wilkie, Ebam, Slight, and others, wlio, though not arriving 
quite to the point required, have nevertheless, by their 
consideration of the subject, been able to lay the foundation 
for some rules that may soon be adopted for the production 
of a comparatively perfect form of this important part of the 
plough ; not that it is likely that any one form will ever be 
the best for OA^ery description of plough, and for all the 
circumstances under which ploughs are used, as width and 
depth of furrow are not the only change of circumstances, 
and it is v^^ell known that a mould-board which exhibits an 
evenly-worn, polished surface, and all the marks of having 
been well adapted to its work, Avill, on being removed to 
another description of soil, exhibit quite the reverse features, 
and show its entire unfitness for the purpose. 

It is impossible in the limited size of this book to enter at 
length on the details of the various forms of mould-board in 
use, — nor is it necessary, as this work is intended for farmers, 
and not ploughmakers ; and parties purchasing ploughs of 
those persons who have obtained a character for the efficiency 
of their implements need not trouble themselves much 
about it, as they may rely upon such ploughs as are sold by 
^lessrs. Eansome, of Ipswich, Howard, of Bedford, Busby^ 
of Bedale, and many other persons, being constructed with 
every care and attention to all the qualities ' necessary to 
produce an implement thoroughly well adapted to its pur- 
pose. The repeated trials for the premiums offered by 
the Eoyal Agricultural Society have done much towards 
improving ploughs, and their residts are the data which the 
agriculturist can study to increase his store of knowledge 
in this department of agricultural machines. 

ca 



34 



TOEEL AXD S^YIXG PLOUGHS. 



WHEEL AXD SWDs'G PLOUGHS, 

Plouglis are diTicled into two classes respectiTely, called 
"Wheel and Swino- Plono-lis. 

o o 

Those of the former class are iisiiallv fitted with a carriage 
and two wheels to support the beam, which is then made to 
stand np at a considerable angle, and is secured to the upper 
part of the carriage, as shoT^ii in fig. 8 ; the bodr, frame, 
stilts, coulter, &c., being similar to a swing plough. The 
draught chain is attached to the centre part of the frame 
(which is called a gallows) between the two wheels, and 
should be at precisely the same spot as it is in the swing- 
plough, the beam of which is always curved downwards to 
allow of it. 

Ploughs witli a wheel and a high gallows, are common in 
many parts of England, and are generally much preferred by 
the local farmers. Yarieties of them may be met with in 
jN'orfolh, Essex, Berkshire, Wiltshire, and many other 
counties. The Kentish tmm- wrest is one of the most cele- 
brated of this description, but has its own peculiar turn, 
turson, or wrest. The Hampshire wheel plough is peculiar 
to some of the light sandy ground in iSTorth Hants, and has 
some peculiar (local) advantages. In Xortli Wilts, in the 
neighbourhood of Chippenham, a wheel plough is used, and 
preferred to any of the long mould-board ploughs lately 
introduced ; it is called the Wiltsliire DiJJy I^lougli. The 
best specimens of this are made b}- a very excellent and 
ingenious implement maker, named John Berriman, of 
Lyneham, the grandson of the original inventor. Tliey are 
wheel ploughs, but are without the gallows or front carriage. 
I have not sufficient knowledge of this implement to be able 
to describe the peculiar qualifications it possesses to make it 
so great a favourite in its locality, but certain it is that this 



TTHEEL AND ST^■I^'G PLOUGHS. 



35 



homely macbine is preferred to tlie most scientific modern 
ones. It is also extraordinary that a wooden mould-board 
is used for it. made of a thick block of apple or pear tree, 
and dubbed into shape with an adze, entirely guided by the 
eye ; but such is the skill of the maker, and the experience 
acquired by constant practice, that a very perfect form is 
given to it. 

Iron mould-boards are fitted to it, but they are not so 
well liked by those who use them, 

A number of ploughs, of an intermediate character 
between beam and swing ploughs, have also been intro- 
duced. Some of these displayed great ingenuity in their 
construction ; one class had wheels or a wheel attached to 
the plough frame, and was intended to decrease the friction 
of the spade or sole-shoe upon the surface of the ground 
while the plough travels ; and although there is some degree 
of plausibility in the idea, the disadvantages of the old plan 
are not so great as the inconveniences of the improved one. 
consequently none of them have come into use. 

The Beam Floi'.gli, icitli Land and Jrurrow TFIieel, is a suc- 
cessful attempt at com.bining some of the advantages of both 
descriptions of ploughs into one. Many Scotch ploughs are 
now made in this way. The plan was not originally intro- 
duced in Scotland ; nevertheless they are called the improved 
Scotch ploughs, though Scotch ploughmen Avill be found 
invariably to prefer swing ploughs to any other descriptions 
of the implement. 

The Hutland Tlougli is a good specimen of one of this 
class. It was designed and originally introduced into the 
county from which it takes its name, by Eichard Baker, of 
Cottesmere. These ploughs may be used as either swing or 
wheel ploughs, the wheels being easily removed. Xearly all 
the most approved English are now made in this manner. 

Fig. 6 shows the manner in which the wheels era 
attached. 



3(3 



HOWAED^S PRIZE PLOUGH. 



Of the comparative merits of wheel and swing plouglis, 
much has been said and written by many persons interested 
in the subject ; and the balance of evidence thus given in 
favour of each is decidedly on the side of the wheel plough, or 
rather the land and furrow wheel-plough, one wheel of about 
20 inches diameter running in the furrow, and the other one 
of about 12 inches running on the top of the unploughed 
land — tlie width of the wheels apart may be adjusted to suit 
any width of furrow. 



howaed's prize plough. 

This plough is made of iron (principally wrought), and is 
intended for ordinary ploughing, and is the smallest of a 
set of new ploughs recently designed and patented by Gr. J. 
and P. Howard. The new patent ploughs are made prin- 



Fig. 6. 




cipally of wrought ii'on, and are all improved from their prize 
ploughs. They are made of three sizes, marked for distiction 
X., XX., XXX., suitable for ordinary, deep, and extra-deep 
ploughing. 

The improvements consist in greater elegance of design, 
more equal proportions, and the furrow-turners being made 
particularly taper and regular in their curve, and formed 



Howard's peize plough. 



37 



upon exact geometrical principles. The furrow-slice is thus 
made to travel at an uniform rate, from its being first cut 
imtil left in its final position ; the power required to work 
the implement considerably lessened, and the furrows laid 
more evenly, and in the best form for the reception of the 
seed, as well as working much cleaner upon land inclined to 
adhere, or load to the breast, or furrow-turner. The shares 
are fixed to lever nicks of wrought iron (made upon an im- 
proved principle), the raising or lowering of which gives the 
point greater or less "pitch," or inclination, as the share 
wears, or as the state of the land may require. The supe- 
riority of this lever neck over others is its great simplicity, 
and its being tightened at the end, instead of by a bolt 
through the side. "When raised or lowered (which can be 
done instantly), it is secured in a series of grooves ; the iron 
is thus brought into a state of tension, ensuring firmness as 
well as increasing the strength. The centre pin, upon 
which the lever works, is a fixture to the neck, and takes its 
bearing close to the head or socket of the share, so that the 
top of the share is not raised above or below the front of 
the breast, when moved into the higher or lower grooves. 
The lever neck has another great advantage over any other, 
— the accumulation of earth inside the plough, in most 
instances, renders the lever useless, as it cannot be moved 
without a great deal of trouble ; but in this arrangement, 
by simply taking off" the end next the neck, it may be at 
once disconnected from the plough, and anything preventing 
its free action removed. The axles of the wheels are upon 
a new principle, and are made so that no grit can enter, nor 
any oil or grease escape : the wheels, therefore, will wear 
much longer, the axles require little or no repairing, and the 
friction is considerably reduced. The mode of fixing the 
wheels is also peculiar; the holdfasts or clamps securing 
them are made to slide through a mortice formed in the 
beam, by which the width may be altered with greater 



38 



HOWAED^S PEIZE PLOUGH. 



facility, besides dispensing with tlie old sHding axle, wMcli 
was an obstacle in deep ploughing, and objectionable on 
dirtj land, on account of the soil accumulating round it. 
The wheels of the method now adopted are brought opposite 
to each other, and the land- wheel may be expanded as well 
as the furrow-wheel. A draught-chain is adopted in all 
Messrs. Howard's ploughs, for the following reasons : — It 
removes all strain from the beam, and in land-work there 
is a steadiness of movement not to be found in ploughs 
which draw from the end of the beam ; the line of draught 
is also more direct, consequently the power required is 
reduced. The handles and beam, which are of wi'ought 
iron, are made throughout in a piece, preventing their 
shaking loose, which is the case with most other ploughs 
made of iron. This latter improvement also prevents the 
accumulation of soil in the hinder part of the plough. Every 
part is so arranged that a ploughman can remove or replace 
the irons, subject to wear or breakage in the field, without 
the assistance of a mechanic. It can be worked either -with 
or without wheels, or with one, as required. It may be had 
with breasts or furrow-turners of various sizes and shapes ; 
broad shares may also be had with it, for paring stubble or 
turf, and others of triangular form, for sub soiling and 
ploughing between the rows of beans or root-crops. The 
skim coulter with which it is fitted is of great importance 
when ploughing ley ground and stubble ; it precedes the 
common coulter, paring and tinning into the furrow the 
herbage upou the surface, so that when the soil is turned 
over by the plough nothing of grass or weeds is left to grovr 
out between the furrows ; consequently the vegetable matter 
thus buried, instead of living upon the soil, decomposes and 
serves to enrich the land. It will also be found most usefal 
when ploughing in dung, mustard, tares, &c., for with the 
addition of a " drag-chain," all may be turned in completely. 
— Catalogue of tlie Boijal Agricultural Sociefi/ at Zeices. 



BUSBY^S PEIZE PLOUGH. 



39 



busby's peize plough. 

This plougli Iiad tlie council medal awarded to it at tlie 
Great Exhibition of all jN'ations in Hyde Park, in 1851. 

It is manufactured by Mr. Eusb}^, of Newton-le-Willows, 
near Bedale, Yorkshire, wlio has, by his intelligence and 



Fig. T. 




untiring industry in the manufacture of this and other 
implements, raised himself from an ordinary -workman to 
his present position as the recipient of the highest honour 
it was in the power of the Commissioners of the Grreat 
Exhibition to bestow. 

This plough has been introduced as the best specimen of 
a plough that is at present manufactured. 



THE KEIS'TISH TUS:T-WEEST PLOUGH. 

A stranger passing for the first time through the county 
of Kent could not fail to notice this remarkable machine. 
In appearance it is the ugliest, heaviest, and most cum- 
bersome-looking machine to be found in all England, 
yet in practice I have no hesitation in saying that it is 



4-0 THE KENTISH TURN-WEEST PLOUGH. 

0]ie of the very best ploughs the agriculturist will ever 
meet with. 



Fig. S. 




Boys, in his survey of Kent, gives the following dimen- 
sions and description of the implement : — 

" It consists of a beam of wood, 10 feet long by 5 inches 
deep and 4 broad, behind which is a foot 5 mches by 
feet long, on the top of which the stilts, or handles, aro 
placed; the foot is tenoned to the end of the beam, and 
mortised at the bottom to the end of the chep. Through the 
beam, at 2 feet 5 inches distance from the foot, is a sheath of 
oak, 7 inches wide by thick, wliich is mortised iuto tho 
chep, or sole, in an oblique direction, so that the point of the 
share is 22 inches distant from the beam. Tlie chep, to 
w^hich the share is fixed, is 5 feet long, 4 inches wide, and 
5 deep. The share is of hammered iron, weighs about 
32 lbs., is 20 inches long, and from 4|- to 7 inches wide at 
the point. The upper end of the beam rests on a carriage, 
with two wheels, 3 feet 2 inches high. On the axle-tree is a 
gallows, on which is a sliding bolster, to let up and down. 
Through the centre of the axle is a clasp iron, to which is 
fixed a strong chain, called a "tow," that comes over the beam, 
so fixed as by means of notches (or a pin called a " chick "), 



THE KENTISH TUr^N -WREST PLOUGH. 



41 



to let tlie whole plough out a greater leugth from the axle, 
thereby letting it down to a greater depth." 

Marshall's description of this plough is too good to he 
omitted. He says it is almost impossible to describe this 
extraordinary production verbally, for its component parts, 
and the names assigned them, are equal to those of a ship. 
A North of England farmer, who has never been south of the 
Thames, would little suspect the purpose for which it is con- 
structed ; he would conceive it to be a carriage rather than 
a plough. It has a pair of wheels fully as large as the 
fore wheels of a moorland waggon, and behind them is 
dragged a long thick log of wood, which slides upon the 
ground as the hob or shoe of a sledge, with, a beam rising- 
high above it, which a small farmer of the north would be 
glad of as a gate-post; comprising in its various parts as 
much timber and other materials as would build a Highland 
cart. It is so pecuHar an instrument as to be manageable 
only by a person who has been long trained to the use of it ; 
and so liable to dislocation from a conflict of forces in its 
mechanism as to require continual nailing and tinkering on 
the part of its manager ; and so unwieldy and rebellious on 
some of the hill-grounds which most require the turn-wrest 
form of tillage as to have been known to break away bodily 
from even the most careful and practised control. Yet, in 
spite of its many and enormous disadvantages, it possesses 
such eminent adaptation to the chalky hills and absorbent 
plains of Kent, and Surrey, and "West Sussex, as to have 
maintained its place in the firm and general esteem of the 
farmers of these districts age after age, since at least the 
beginning of the seventeenth century, to the utter neglect of 
the great multitude of modern plough improvements. The 
value of it on such lands, says the writer whom we have 
already quoted in this paragraph, is so obvious at sight that 
I claim no merit in having repeatedly recommended it in 
the "West of England, the central Highlands, and other 



42 



THE KEXTISH TUB^T-T^REST PLOUGH. 



places, for steep surfaces and absorbent subsoils. Even on 
level ground, vrbose subsoil is of an absorbent nature, this 
plough has its merits ; and in breaking up wbole ground to be 
cropped on one plougliing, as old sward, temporary lev, 
stubble, and especially wbere tbe sod is of a strong tenacious 
texture, it is a valuable instrument. The share being 
merely a socket, vrith a flatted point or chisel, without any 
fin or wing to separate the soil from its base, it is of course 
torn from it by strength of team, and in this violent opera- 
tion the texture of the soil is broken so as to admit the tender 
iibrils of the succeeding crop. Add to this, the plit or 
plough-slice adhering strongly on the fiuTow-side, is turned 
with dif&culty. 

The Kentish tui^n-wiTst plough, in spite of its ugly 
appearance, is considered by the best judges to be (when 
in the hands of skilful ploughmen) a most efficient imple- 
ment ; and I remember to have once heard the first plough- 
maker in England (and he lives at Bedford) say he considered 
Kent the best ploughed county in England. 

The man who attempts to plough with this implement 
must thoroughly understand all its peculiarities, and be able 
to adjust it to the greatest nicety, for as it has to lay olf 
both right and left, it must be perfectly true in all its 
bearings, and the coulter must set quite true to the furrow- 
edge it is cutting. "WTiat jMarshall calls the nailing and 
tinkering on the part of its manager is caused by correcting 
any inclination the machine may have to swerve from a per- 
fectly straight line, and which the complicated bracings 
necessary may cause it to do. The experienced ploughman, 
therefore, always carries in the foot of an old shoe, or a 
small leather bag, a quantity of nails of various sizes : these 
he fits in at the junction of the links with each other until 
the whole arrangement is to his mind. At ploughing- 
matches, it is no uncommon thing for the ploughman to fit 
in between twenty and thirty of these nails before he is 



THE KENTISH TUllN-TTREST PLOUGH. 



43 



sufficieutly satisfied with tlie general trim of Lis macliine to 
commence operations. 

Mr. Eansome observes that the work performed is excel- 
lent, and for deep and lieavj ploughings, the principle is 
better adapted than a casual observer would suppose ; but 
that it is not to be denied that it is a more cumbrous 
implement than a plough formed as a turn-wrest needs to 
be, for a large proportion of its present size and strength is 
requisite to provide against the strains to which it is sub- 
jected from the attempts to counterbalance the conflicting- 
forces its erroneous construction has engendered. 'With a 
view to bring this plough into more general use, by getting 
rid of some of the least useful portions of it and remodelling 
of the others, a plough was constructed under the direction 
of Mr. AYilliam Smart, of Eainham, in Kent, and with such 
success that the improved plough might be made equally 
applicable to the power of tAvo or four horses, according to 
the state or nature of the land on which it was to be used. 
In Yol. XIII., p. 59, of the "Earmers' Magazine " will be 
found a lengthened description of these improvements, and 
the views of the constructor in reference to the turn-wrest 
plough. Smart's plough is so constructed that the plough- 
man can shift the coulter as he pleases, and reverse the Avrest 
from right to left without moving from his proper position 
between the stilts ; this he effects by means of a lever 
through which the head of the coulter passes, and one end 
of which is brought conveniently up to a position just above 
the inner end of the plough-beam ; and by a simple mechanical 
contrivance the turn- wrest can be removed from side to side, 
so that either becomes alternately the mould-board as the 
farrovf requires to be turned. A screw-linli and swivel is 
introduced in the chains to get rid of the nail business before 
mentioned. This plough in its improved form is manufac- 
tured by JMessrs. Eansome, of Ipswich ; the handles and 
beam are of wood, and the gallows of v\TOught iron. 



-i t THE KENTISH TLmN-WREST PLOUGH. 



There are a yariety of other ploughs for eifecting the same 
object as the one we have been describing, that is. the 
turniug the furrows all iu one direction, and laying the 
seams at an angle with the horizon. One of the first of these 
was invented by the late Z\Ir. Smith, of Deanston : it was 
framed much like an ordinary iron Scotch plough, but had 
two mould-boards, one of which was elevated above the beam, 
Avhile the other is at work. On arri™g at the end of the 
iLirrow, the right and left lianded mould-boards are reversed, 
by means of a handle fixed to the end of a spindle, placed 
longitudinally along the beam above the plough-frame : and 
on the end of this is placed an eccentric ingeniously contrived, 
by James Wilkie, of Addiiigton, which, acting upon the 
coulter, sets it to the proper angle for the land side of the 
furrow, right or left, as may be. It obtained a premium from 
the Highland Society twenty years ago, and serves equally 
well for ploughing on the sides of the steepest hills as on the 
fiat. In Mr. Eansome's book this plough is described as 
invented by James Smith, of Deanston. In other books it 
is called Wilkie's double mould-board turn-wrest plough. 
There was an implement in existence before this, exhibiting 
essentially the same principles, but was not nearly in so 
perfect a state. It was invented by Gray. 

Sau's Tuni-icrest. — This was the invention of Captain Hay, 
of Belton, and was peculiar : it had a right-handed body, 
and a left-handed one, placed end to end, its beam and stilts 
turning on a pivot at the centre of the top of the body, thus 
easily reversing, and tiu-ning the furrow right or left ; its 
coidter is fixed to the beam in the ordinary manner. 

Hiickvale's Plough is thus described by Eansome. This 
]fiough is so constructed, that by reversing the position of 
one of its handles the ploughman is enabled to turn the body 
part from right to left, so that the part that was in one 
instance the slade or sole of the plough, will alternately 
become its land side, and thus act on either side of the plough : 



lowcock's patent plough. 



45 



that side Avliicli is not at v^'ork forming a close cover over 
tlie other. The share is formed with two blades or cntting 
edges at right angles, one of which acts horizontalh^ as a 
share, and the other verticall}' as a coulter, and the position 
of which is changed at eacli end of the furrow by the same 
operation. 

MeacVs Turn-ivrest. — The improvement consists in the 
application of a pair of wheels, or a single wheel, as a roller, 
as circumstances may require. The leading wheel or wheels 
run on a plain surface of the land, and regulate the deptb 
of the plough. The hind wheels are placed under the 
sole of the plough, commonly called the chep, and carry 
the hind part clear of the ground, by which means the 
great unnecessary friction arising from dragging the whole 
length along the furrow is greatly diminished. It is also 
applied to a mole-sliare, fitted to follow the hind wheels. 
This plough, with the mole-share acting 5 inches below the 
furrow, opens the pores, through a stratum of earth that has 
been trodden for the last century (by driving horses in the 
furrow), until it became nearly as impervious as a sheet of 
lead. It has, with the mole-share attached, been drawn by 
four horses for a Avhole day, ridging up wheat upon very stiii 
lands. Where land has been drained ridging is unnecessarj- ; 
the surface of the field may be left plain, without furrows. 
'J'o accomplish this, the ground- wrest is taken olf at the end 
of every furrovr, and shifted to the other side, wdiile the 
horses are turning, and the coulter shifted by means of a lever 
at the top of the beam. The snap-wrest is not taken oiF to 
turn the furrow, but passes througb the body of the plough ; 
the lever shifts the coulter the same as the turn- wrest. 

LOAVCOCK's PATEJfT PLOUGH. 

This plough is for the purpose of turning furrows in one 
Ime of direction, and parallel to each other. It is almost 



46 



CLAIIK^'S UNIVERSAL RIDGE PLOUGH. 



self-acting, as respects its adaptation to each succeeding 
furrow ; and so simple in its formation that any ploughman 
may at once use it to advantage. 

It will be seen upon inspection that the plough does not 
require to be turned round at the end of the field ; but the 
ploughman haying completed his furrow, to the right, passing 
on the furrow side of the plough, turns over the handles from 
one end of the beam to the other, v^dien they are re-adjusted 
by a catch affixed to them, which, dropping into a mortice at 
the beam-head, renders them stationary. Whilst performing 
this simple operation, the horses turn round on the land side 
of the plough (thus preventing the ploughed land from being 
trodden), and by the act of turning, the draught-chain to 
which they are attached slides on a rod to the other end of 
the plough. As soon as the horses commence drawing, the 
left-hand share and coulter set into their Avork ; the double 
fiy, vrhich forms a part of the mould-board each way, coming 
in contact with the newly-cut furrow, instantly turns back 
and assumes its correct position, and the implement proceeds 
without further adjustment, cutting out and turning over the 
farrow-slice to the left hand. The utility of a plough of this 
description is obvious, whether for ley crops, in small, irre- 
gular, and hilly fields, or in lands that will not bear treading 
when wet. 



Clark's tniyeesal ridge plol'GH. 

Is the invention of John Clark, of Long Sutton Marsh, to 
whom a medal was awarded by the Eo3"'al Agricultural 
Society of England. 

It is adapted to the several purposes of ridge culture, and 
by an easy transition of shape, which is accomplished in a 
simple manner, it becomes, 

1st. A double tom or ridge plough, for opening or closing 
the soil, as in ridge-ploughing, or for setting out the land for 



EANSOME^S HOE PLOUGH. 



47 



ordinary plougliiug, or for opening tlie surface- drains in 

water-furrows, &c. 
j 2nd. A moulding plough for moulding up roots, crops, 
j and other purposes. 

I 3rd. It may be converted into a horse-hoe or cleaning 
plough, with curved coulters, for cleaning the sides of ridges, 
j or with flat hoes for broad work ; or it may, wdth slight modi- 
fication, become a broad-share plough, to which rising prongs 
|i or shares may be attached, for the purpose of clearing land 
' from weeds and rubbish. This implement is exceeding well 
adapted to small holders who cannot afford to have a great 
I variety of implements lying idle for a large portion of their 
time. Machines and implements of all kinds, whether mills, 
li ploughs, &c., that are adapted to execute a variety of different 
\ operations, are deserving of special encom^agement, as being 
j so particularly adapted to the wants of the small farmer, who, 
I without them, is w^orking at great disadvantage with his 
ij neighbours, whose operations are on a much larger extent of 
J srround. 

! 

j ea^s^some's hoe plough. 

i] 

j Is for the purpose of hoeing up weeds, and stirring and 
'1 loosening the soil between the rovfs of plants. It has two 
I Avheels, one in front, and one behind the hoes, by which the 



I 

I ■ Fig- 9. 




I 
I 



4S 



THE DOUBLE EUUllOTV PLOUGH. 



deptli of lioeing is regulated. It may be used witli tliree tri- 
angular lioes, eacli cutting 13^ inclies "wide, extending over 
3 feet 6 inclies, or contracted to a smaller width ; or the two 
hind hoes may be substituted by two curved knives, as shown 
in fig. 9, for cutting the weeds up on the sides of ridges. It 
is a very simple implement, capable of doing a great deal of 
work, and may be adapted to a variety of purposes. 

MOTJLDiya PLOUGnS, OE DOUBLE TOMS. 

These are made with two mould-boards, one on either side, 
and are used for earthing up plants sown upon the ridge ; the 
mould is turned up lightly on tlie right and left sides, as the 
plough passes along between the rows. It is also frequenth^ 
used for opening water-furrows between the breadths of 
ploughed land. AYhen the mould-boards are removed, it may 
be applied as a broad-share plough for cleaning land, or as 
a light description of subsoil. They are manufactured by 
Messrs. Bansome of an improved form, and may be adapted 
to a variety of useful purposes, with the addition of some 
ver}' simple parts. 

THE DOUBLE EUEKOW PLOUGH. 

Is an implement of such ancient date that it is men- 
tioned by ^"alter Blythe, who wrote during the pro- 
tectorate of Oliver Cromwell ; but was not extensively 
brought into use until it was recommended by some 
improvements of the late Lord Somerville, whom many 
persons have viewed as its original inventor. The late 
Mr. Eillingsley, of Shepton Mallet, says that some may doubt 
the possibility of making the double plough so generally 
useful ; but he can truly say that he never yet found an 
instance where it could not be worked to advantage ; and it 
is well known that, in the various trials made under the 



SUBSOIL PLOUGHS. 



49 



auspices of the Bath Society, on lands of the most difficult 
natui'e, the double plough has always gained the prize. It 
has been recommended by judges, when drawn by four 
horses, and put in competition with a ]N"orfolk wheel plough, 
a light Carlisle swing plough, and a common Wiltshire 
plough, each drawn by a pair, " as the best and cheapest for 
general use ; " the decision also stating " that the double 
coulter plough had been preferred for the general purposes 
of husbandry, laying the furrow more flat than the others, and 
consequently exposing more new surface to the influence of 
the elements, and preventing more completely the growth of 
grass and weeds between the furrows." xilthough on light 
soils it may be used with considerable profit, if the ground 
be tolerably level, yet if the surface be very uneven, it works 
to disadvantage ; nor can it be properly worked on land that 
has not been previously broken up, and it can be of very 
little use where it is the custom to raise the crown of the 
ridge considerably above the furrow, since it cannot perform 
the operations of " gathering or cleaning." Double furrow 
ploughs of an improved form are manufactured by Bansome 
and May, of Ipswich. 



SUBSOIL PLOUGHS. 



The practice of subsoiling has been productive of perhaps 
greater immediate benefits to the farmer than almost any 
improvement that has been introduced of late years, for 
subsoil ploughing is the breaking up the stratum of earth 
immediately imder that which is annually ploughed and 
prepared for the growing of crops, and upon which the 
liorses have, ever since the ground was first cultivated with 
a plough, been walking, so treading it into an impermeable 
mass, through which the water camiot pass but with diffi- 
culty, or the roots of the plants force their way. If sub- 
soiling be well done it will generally repay its cost the 

1 VOL. UL D 

i. 



50 



SUBSOIL PLOUGHS. 



first 3rear, as the soil broken up lias tlirough time been 
receiying mucli of the fertilising matter laid on above, and 
a heavy crop is sure to be the reward for the expense 
incurred ; but I would advise all persons about to subsoil 



Fig, 10. 




land, especially if there be a pan or crust to break up, to 
employ some person whom they can trust (the farmer him- 
self ought to do it) to walk beside the plough the whole 
time the operation is going on, and continually with a spade 
examine the soil, and see if it be effectually broken up. 
Unless this be done, I am sure the work will not be properly 
executed. I have tried all sorts of men at the subsoil 
plough, and never knew an instance where the ordinary 
ploughman would keep the plough down, if he could avoid it; 
in nine cases out of ten he believes the whole operation to be 
a new-fangled idea from which no benefit will be derived, 
and if his horses are good, and he takes much pride in 
their sleek condition, he will certainly sacrifice the efiiciency 
of the operation for the benefit of his favourite animals. 
The master must never leave the plough, and must always 
insist that the depth decided on be kept, never minding 
how much the man complains of himself and his horses, and 
always remembering that it is better to do a small piece 
thoroughly well, than to run lightly over the whole farm. 
Subsoil ploughs have been used and appreciated for many 
years; the first mention made of one is in " Worlidge's 
Mysteries of Husbandry," 1677. He tells of an ingenious 



SUBSOIL PLOUGHS. 



51 



young man in Kent who had two ploughs fastened very 
firmly together, by the which he ploughed two furrows at 
once, one under the other, and so stirred up the land 12 to 
14i inches deep. This is clearly a regular subsoil opera- 
tion ; but no such practice became general, until James 
Smith, of Deanston, had invented n proper plough for 
the purpose, and pursued subsoiling as a regular tillage 
operation. His plough is by far the best known and ap- 
preciated of any of the deep working ploughs. Pig. 10 
represents this implement ; it has no mould-board nor land 
side-plates, and is in fact only a skeleton plough of great 
strength. 

A longitudinal feather stands in the place of a mould- 
board ; it has a strong pointed share, with a flat feather ; it 
has also a curved and self-cleaning coulter. The draught is 
applied through a bridle and chain bar. Mr. Smith says it 
is intended merely to break up and stir the subsoil, without 
bringing it to the surface, or mixing it in the first instance 
with the superincumbent soil ; it is in fact a horse pick, 
and readily loosens and throws out all stones, not exceeding 
701b. in weight. It is drawn by four horses, two and two 
abreast, and is held in the usual way by one man. In 
working, the common plough goes before it, taking a 
furrow 10 inches by 6 inches, the subsoil implement follow- 
ing in the bottom of that furrow, and going deeper by 
10 or 12 inches. 



THE CHAELBTJUY SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 



THE RACKHEATH SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 

This is the iiiTentiou of Sir E. Stracej. It is of a lighter 
description than the Deanston plough, and effects its object 



Fig. 1]. 




in a satisfactory manner. When fitted with wheels it makes 
a most Talnable suhturf plough, and is useful in a variety 
of ways. 

THE CHAELBUET SUBSOIL PLOUGH 

Is the invention of Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., and is intended 
as a substitute for the Deanston plough. Mr. Pusey's im- 
provements are described by him in an interesting paper 
in the Journal of the Boi/al Agricultural Society, vol. I. 
p. 433. He says, " It struck me, therefore, that possibly 
the discovery of Mr. Smith might be carried a little 
farther, and be brought more within ordinary means, if 
we could diminish the friction necessarily incurred in 
passing through the unstirred subsoil by dispensing with 
more parts of the common plough besides the mould-board ; „ 
and I determined to try whether, by combining in one^j 
plough the two hitherto used, we might not get rid of the^ 
sole itself in the underground implement, trusting to the 
ordinary sole above ground for preserving the balance, and 
so reducing the instrument below the furrow (where the. 



BARRETT^ EXALL, AND ANDREWS^S SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 5'J 

friction and resistance are, of course, very great), to a mere 
cutting or stirring-tool. 

The experimental plougli was constructed bj Hart, of 
"Wantage, by placing a strong iron socket behind one of his 
own single-wheel ploughs, constructed with greater strength 
in the beam than usual ; into this socket a tine, similar to 
those of Eiddle's scarifier, but thinner, was placed. This 
back tine could be raised or lowered at pleasure. It was 
placed on the olF-side of the beam, in order that it might 
work in the middle of the fresh furrow, and so act more 
freely than if it was placed on the near- side, immediately 
against the unstirred land. 

A trial of the draught of this plough was made with Mr. 
Cottam's draught gauge, and found to be between 7 and 
8 cwt. ; while the draught of the Deanston subsoil was 12 
cwt., and adding to which 2 cwt. for the plougli that first 
opens the furrow, the laboiu' of the horses would be equal to 
14 cwt. altogether. Mr. Pusey states that the subsoil was 
more thoroughly stirred by the Deanston implement ; but 
that one of the principal objects of sub soiling — the letting 
the water down to the drains through clefts left in the 
subsoil — was accomplished equally with his plough as the 
the heavier one. 

BAEEETT, EXALL, AND AlfDEEWS'S SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 

The mechanical construction of this plough is simple, and in 
practice it is found to work lighter than the single-share 
plough. It is constructed with two or three tines or shares, 
so adjusted in position, and formed of such shape, as would 
most easily overcome resistance ; each share, preceding its 
follower, lessens its work by breaking up the upper crust of 
the soil, and the lower share can either be shaped as an O 
or Q, so leaving an arched drain to carry away the top 
water to the main drains. 

i 



AN AMERICAN PLOUGH. 



EEAD's STJBPULVEIIISES. 

This is a very useful and efficient implement, and should 
be in constant use on every farm, for it is one of the best 
subsoil ploughs ever made. 

At the meeting of the Boyal Agricultural Society at 
iSouthampton, this plough was put to the test by the judges, 
with several others, in the hard-baked soil of Mr. Spooner's 
farm. The pan, or old plough-floor, of this field had evidently 
never been invaded by agricultui'al tools. Below six inches it 
was as solid as continual trampling can be conceived to 
have made a tenacious loam, aided by a drought of several 
weeks' duration. Mr. Eead's pulveriser was put into the 
furrow opened by a plough, and set to work at about six inches 
under it. To use the judges' own words, " the old floor was 
split into fragments like broken tiles, and the soil separated 
and pulverised." — Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, 
vol. v.. Part 2, p. 371. 

I have used this plough much myself in breaking up moor- 
pan, and can confidently recommend it as a generally useful 
implement. It may be adapted to a variety of purposes by 
substituting different formed shares and tines, and used as 
a turf-plough, grubber, horse-hoe, &c., &c. It is sometimes 
made with wooden beams and stilts, and at others with 
Stratten's patent hoUow-iron beam. In the latter form it 
is much stronger and more durable. 

AN AMERICAN PLOUGH. 

This is a representation of one of the American ploughs 
exhibited at the Grreat Exhibition of aU Nations, and which 
excited great interest among agriculturists who saw them. • 

They are said to possess peculiar advantages in the locality 
of the lands they are intended to break up ; but they are not 



PLOUGHING BY STEAIVF. 



55 



ayailable here in any way that I am aware of, though I observe 
one honse advertises to supply English farmers with these 



Pig. 12. 




remarkable implements. I doubt much whether any one 
who has seen the ploughs of our best makers will ever be 
persuaded to buy them, so utterly different are they to all 
those notions which we are agreed about in reference to 
ploughs. 

Some very ingenious implements were exhibited^' never- 
theless — one, in particular, which was so constructed that 
the mould-board turned underneath and adapted itself 
equally well to one side or the other ; and, among others, 
one which has chisel-headed shares, which could be pro- 
truded forward as it wore away, being thus always self- 
sharpening. This principle might be applied with advantage 
to ploughs intended for the colonies. 

PLOUGHIITG BY STEAM 

Has not yet been brought to such a state as to be appli- 
cable to ordinary practice. A number of gentlemen have, 
at different times, brought forward plans for ploughing 
by steam, and, much to their honour, have given the different 
methods a fair trial without regard to the expense; and 
so far as the mere fact of the practicability of ploughing by 



56 



PLOUGHING BY ST£A:iI. 



steam is concerned, it lias been accomplislied — ^wliole fields 
haying been well plougbed, in a number of different trials 
conducted by Mr. Heatbcote and otber gentlemen. 

Some of the most recent of these have been made by Lord 
"Willoughby d'Eresby, at Grrimsthorpe, and yrith great 
success. In this case a portable enguie works down the 
centre of the field upon a sort of portable railway ; the 
ploughs work backwards and forwards between it and the 
side of the field, drawn by chains and windlasses worked by 
the engine. 

At a recent meeting of the Eoyal Institution, the Duke 
of Northumberland in the chair — J. Wilson, Esq., on 
Ploughs and Ploughing, ancient and modern. iSIr. Wilson, 
after a general history of ploughs, summed up as follows : — 
Let us see what would be the result of the substitution 
of the steam plough for our present systems of ploughiag. 
In England, takiag Caird's estimate, there are 14,000,000 
acres in tillage ; these are ploughed certainly once eyery 
year. The cost of the operation ayerages at least IO5. per 
acre, thus giying a total of 7,000,000Z. per annum. This 
first machine of Usher does the work better than by the 
plough for 2s. 6d. per acre, or at 75 per cent, less cost. 
The saying would consequently be about 5,250,000Z. per 
annum. The labour of 50,000 men, and 100,000 horses, 
required for this one operation, would be replaced, and a 
saying in the consumption of corn eSected to at least 
1,500,000 quarters, which would be thus rendered ayailable 
for the more dnect wants of the community," 



HARROWS AND CULTIVATORS. 



57 



CHAPTEE III. 



HARROWS A^J) CULTIVATORS. 

The next operation after tlie plougfi is that of harrowing. 
It requires to be performed at different times on all descrip- 
tions of land, for pulverising and reducing the clods of stiff 
land, and extracting couch, &c., upon light. It is required 
for preparing the land for sowing, and is used for covering 
the seed with the earth after the crop has been sown. 

This implement is of equal antiquity with the plough, for 
an instrument of this kind must have existed in some shape 
or other from the earliest periods in the history of agri- 
culture ; for as the opening up of the soil required the aid of 
the plough, so did the covering up the seed the assistance of 
another implement of entirely different character. A branch 
of a tree was doubtless the first instrument used for the 
purpose, and in the early operation upon the soil, little more 
would be required than such an implement would perform ; 
indeed, so lately as 1668, an agricultural writer gives 
directions for constructing a harrow, thus : — " Get a pretty 
big white-thorn tree, and make sure that it be wonderful 
thick, bushy, and rough-grown." In many parts of the 
world, at the present time, no better harrow exists. In 
jSTorway, ^Russia, and other countries where fir-trees abound, 

I the harrows are generally constructed by fastening several 
lengths of tree side by side, with a cross-piece on the top to 

' hold them together. As they are drawn along, the projecting 
spurs act as tines, and the trees roll about as they are draw^n 
forward, and effect the operation of harrowing in a much 
better manner than might be supposed. A similar imple- 

I 



58 



HAEEOWS AND CULTIVATOES. 



ment, of a lighter kind, is also constructed hj fastening tlie 
nr-logs across the opposite way. The Belgian Hacken is 
formed of thick spars of wood fastened together, but it has 
no teeth. A framework of wood and wooden teeth may be 
found in some remote farms in England at the present time ; 
the introduction of iron teeth is comparatively a modern 
improvement. 

The harrow performs its work by means of the teeth, or 
tines, as they are called, pressed into the soil by their own 
weight and that of the frame to which they are attached. 
They are made of a variety of shapes and weights, according 
to the description of land on which they are to be employed. 
The heaviest kind are called drags ; and the smaller, harrows. 
The drags are used singly, or two coupled together ; the light 
harrows are worked in gangs. 

The drags are constructed with tines from nine inches to 
a foot in length, and are securely fastened to a wooden 
framework composed of cross bars, the strongest of which 
are called the balks or bulls, and are placed lengthways in 
the frame. 

The tines are sometimes made like plough coulters, and 
rake considerably forward. A pair of wheels have also been 
fitted to them, and an arrangement made to adjust the depth 
of the tines; but when thus treated the implement approaches 
nearly to the grubber and scarifier (which will be found 
described under their respective heads), and many of the 
operations formerly performed by drags are now done in a 
much more efficient manner by some descriptions of the 
latter implements. 

Small harrows are always worked connected together, or 
in gangs, attached to each other in a variety of ways by 
links, so as to allow them sufficient play to yield to the 
curved form of the ridges, and thus perform the work very 
completely. 

Howards, of Bedford, are celebrated for the manufacture 



HARROWS AND CULTIVATORS. 



59 



of harrows of all kinds, more particalarly those on the 
principle invented by "W. Armstrong, and shown in fig. 13. 



Fig. 13. 




In these harrows the teeth are so arranged that each 
cuts a separate track, at equal distances; the draught 
is from a centre, so that any irregular pace of the horses 
does not affect them by drawing them out of their proper 
track. The balks are of zig-zag form, which allows of the 
tines working in lines very close to each other, yet 
preventing any inclination to clog. 

Each harrow is attached to the whippletree by double 
hooks, which prevent them, in rough work and turning, 
from riding upon each other, and also, when working upon 
the side of a hill, from inclining towards the lower ground. 
They are furnished with hooks at the hinder part, in order to 
draw them the contrary way when harrowing-in seed or crops 
in the spring; by this means the soil is not rooted up or pene- 
trated so deep as when drawn forward in the usual manner. 

The teeth are made with a square shoulder, and secured 
to the frame by means of screws and nuts ; consequently they 



60 



THE XOEWEGIAX HAEEOW. 



may be taken out and re-laid without injui^ing tlie frame or 
beams. Each tooth is secured with a double nut, to prevent 
its shaking loose. 



THE ]S"OEWEGIAX^ HAEKOW. 

This implement is becoming a great favourite with agri- 
culturists, and deservedly so, for it far surpasses the ordinary 
harrows (of whatever kind) in performing several important 



Fig. 14. 




operations : first, for harrowing immediately after ploughing, 
it breaks and pulverises the furrow, leaving 3 or 4 inches' 
depth of fine mould beautifully prepared for seed ; it saves 
the use of heavy and middle-sized ordinary harrows, the 
small seed harrows once over after sowing being sufficient. 
Secondly, while other pulverisers consolidate the land, and 
harrows leave the clay in large lumps, this implement 
pulverises, but does not consolidate. Thii^dly, it prepares 
the roughest land, whether wet or dry, without clogging. 

rig. 14 represents this machine, as manufactured by 
Crosskill, of Beverley. It has three sets of rowels, 4 feet 
6 inches wide, placed upon round axles. 



CULTIVATORS. 



61 



An improyed metliod of regulating lias also been adopted, 
to adjust the true incline of tlie harrow spikelets or rowels, 
which verj mucli reduces the draught. 

Making the points longer, oval-shaped, and thinner, has 
been found to materiallj improve this implement, as it 
enables them to cut, and get more hold of tough and hard 
soil, as well as to work the land deeper. 

CrLTIYATOES. 

Under this head may be placed a large class of implements, 
bearing a variety of names, as drags, scarifiers, grubbers, 
scufflers, pulverisers, &c., &c., but whose objects all tend to 
the same purpose, that is the producing a fine tilth to the 
soil, tearing up the surface, and eradicating the weeds and 
rubbish. Harrows might very properly be placed in the 
same category, as the object of their use is precisely the 
same, the difference being only in the size and effectiveness 
of the machine : harrows beino^ fitted with a laro-e number of 
small teeth, and acting comparatively on the surface, while 
the implements we have placed under the head of cultivators 
have a few teeth, but of much greater strength and size, 
consequently their operations extend to a greater depth into 
the ground, and a variety of operations are performed by 
their aid that could not be accomplished by harrows ; indeed, 
so strong- and effective are some of the larger kind, that they 
are used in some cases instead of ploughs ; and stubbles, &c., 
are often broken up, and the land re- sown, without the plough 
being used. 

Although the use of such implements is of a modern 
date, yet cultivators have been in use in some shape or 
other for a considerable period. I find, in a book published 
nioi-e than fifty years since, several descriptions of instru- 
ments bearing characteristics much like those now in use, 
and high eulogiums passed upon their use. One of them 



62 



CULTIVATOUS. 



mucli resembles tlie implement lately introduced as 
Johnson's Cultivator, and wMch will be found described at 
page 66. It is called a broad-sbare skim, and used for tbe 
purpose of cleaning stubbles, particularly beans, peas, &c., 
to prepare them for spring crops. 

" In the Isle of Thanet these are made straight and sharp, 
very strong, 4 feet in length, and are often hung behind 
a pair of cart-wheels. Elsewhere they are made in the form 
of a crescent, or of a large prong with three or four large 
flat tines drawn horizontally, with the points forward, which 
force their way among the flints and loose stones." 
Hayward's Extirpator is also described as a most powerful 
implement, and a plate of it is given in Young's " Suffolk." 
The tines and shares are fixed in an oblong wooden frame. 
The shares 8 inches broad and 9 inches long, fixed to 
stalks rising 10 inches, the distance between them being 
11 inches, the hind ledge 6 feet long and 4 inches 
square, the fore-ledge 5|- feet long and 4 inches square, 
the ledges 12 inches apart, the beam 7 feet long, its elevation 
3 feet 3 inches. It was fitted with two handles, and fixed to 
the wheels of a common plough, and made to go shallow or 
deep in the same manner. 

This implement is much like one introduced many years 
later by Euller of Ipswich, with the difference that Fuller's 
had but one row of tines, and the ledges which carried them 
were supported on wheels ; but this latter im^plement was 
quickly superseded by an ingenious machine, called J'inlay- 
son's patent Self-cleaning Harrow, a well-known implement, 
upon the principle of which a variety of similar machines 
have been constructed of modified forms. Among these 
"Wilkie's Parallel Adjusting Brake may be mentioned, as 
having some important, improvements, yet constructed upon 
precisely the same plan. 





LOPwD DUCIE^S (JULTIVATOll. 



63 



kiekwood's getjbeek 

Was also of a similar character, but had tlie important 
addition of handles, wkich gaye the operator power to 
regiilat-e the depth to the greatest nicety, and when it became 
chocked to throw it out of work. 

EIDDELL's SCAEiriEE 

Approaches more nearly to this class of implements as now 
constructed. It consists of a double row of tines of great 
strength, fixed in an iron frame which is supported by two 
wheels about 4 feet in height ; the teeth are so arranged 
that those in the hinder row shall work in a track midway 
between that of the front ones ; the fore-end of the machine 
is supported on two smaller wheels attached to an upright 
shaft, the machine thus being suspended upon thi^e pivots ; 
and by means of two ingeniously arranged levers the two 
rows of tines may be made to work in any manner that may 
be required. It is altogether a most admirable machine, 
and capable of executing a large amount of work in a short 
time, and under difficul'o cii^cumstances ; but it has now given 
way to another, of a somewhat different character, called 

LOED DrCIE's CrLTIYATOE, OE THE DUCIE DEAG. 

This implement is now very generally used, and is manu- 
factujred by most machinists, and although its actual form 
and manner of getting up may vary occasionally, according to 
the ingenuity or fancy of the maker, its principles always 
remain the same. The Ducie Drag, or 

Tlie TJley Cultivator^ as it is often called, rests upon four 
wheels, the front ones being 1 foot 6 inches, and the hind 
ones 3 feet 4 inches in diameter. It is constructed of iron, 
of a strong and compact form. 



64 COLMAN^S DHAG HARROW CULTIVATOR, OR SCARIFIER. 



The teeth are not placed in rows, but are arranged 2 feet 
apart, while the difference of the working track is only 6 
inches. It is raised out of the ground, and the depth of 
working regulated with the greatest ease, by turning a handle 
upon which a worm is fixed, working into a wheel fixed on 
the cranked axle. This efficient implement is manufactured 
by Barrett and Exall, of Eeading, of an improved form. 
The tioes are so curved as to assist the action, by causing 
the rubbish to be deposited upon the top of the land ; the 
points and shares are made to fit on w ithout being pinned. 
An excellent variety of this implement was made by Stratton, 
of Bristol, with the application of his hollow iron bar. 
Having had considerable experience with this particular 
form of drag, I can confidently recommend it for the many 
purposes to which such implements are put. 



COLMAN's drag HAEEOW CrLTITATOE, OE SCAEiriEE. 

This is an excellent implement, invented by Colman, of 
Chelmsford, and manufactured by Garrett and others. 

It is constructed upon a novel principle, and is well 
adapted for harrowing, paring, and cultivating land. There 
are seven prongs or tines, to wdiich shares or spuds, varying 
from 2 to 10 inches wide, may be affixed. These prongs are 
arranged so as to cut the land 8 inches apart ; the depth of 
penetration being regulated by a lever which acts upon a 
frame suspended about 6 inches above the lower one, and 
by an easy movement backwards or forwards regulates the 
depth of the tines or shares to the greatest nicety. It is a 
most efficient implement for opening and pulverising the 
soil ; as shares of difi'erent forms may be placed upon the 
tines, it may easily be applied to other purposes, as a skim- 
parer, &c. Messrs. Garrett have added an improvement, by 
which one side may be depressed lower than the other, to 



JOHNSOJs^S SKI3I CUL'lTVATOIl. 



65 



adaptlt better for working on sloping ground, and so simplr 
that it can be altered while in use. 



Fig. 15. 




A smaller implement, called a subsoil harrow, is also manu- 
factured bj Colman, for stirring the subsoil ; it has two 
tines, united bj the framework above, and a connecting-bar 
at the bottom, upon the end of which is placed a kind of 
share, the depth being regulated by a lever similar to the 
large drag. 

johis'son's skim ctjltiyatoe. 

This is the invention of the Eev.E.H. Johnson, of Grovelje, 
Linfield, Sussex, and is manufactured by Messrs. Garrett. 
It is for the purpose of breaking up and pulverising land, 
clearing it of weeds, rubbish, and of couch grass, and it is 
asserted, at a less expense than bj the means usuallj resorted 
to. It is said that a lad with three horses may go over five 
acres per day ; and as the implement, from its simple form. 



68 



llOLLEES. 



is not so likely to cHoke up as most similar implements are, 
or require to be taken out of the ground so often, it is quite 
possible tbis may be tbe case. It is found gTeatly to facili- 



Fig. 16. 




tate tbe Trorking of land during, and immediately after, 
harvest, for the purpose of bringing it into a proper state of 
tilth for the early root-crops in the spring of the year, and 
also for cleaning bean and pea stubbles, tare lands, &c., in 
preparation for coleworts, mustard, rape, and turnips, for 
early autumn feeding, and leave the land in a good state for 
the wheat crop. 

EOLLESS. 

The operation of rolling land is to efiect several different 
objects, the principal of which are, the breaking the large 
lumps of earth that have been sun-dried, and to assist in the 
preparation of a finer tilth, or pressing in the ground about 
newly-sovra. seed, and to compress and smooth the surface oi 
grass land, and render it better adapted for mowing. The 
roller is a modem implement, as it would not be required in 
the cultivation of such lands as were cropped in earlier 
times. 



HOLLEllS. 



07 ' 



Eollers are made of wood, stone, and iron. The old 
implement was a rude affair, constructed on the farm with 
the best materials that could be had. Stone was introduced 
as being more effective from its greater weight, but could 
not be made of the same width, and therefore was more 
inconvenient. Iron is now the material generally employed, 
and it is by far the best. 

An immense number of differently designed rollers have 
been introduced — one of the earliest was by Mr. Booth, of 
AUerton, near Liverpool, and is described by Mr. Eansome 
as consisting of five cylinders of small diameters, pressed 
into the ground by levers with weights attached. The 
inventor considered that rollers with small diameters would 
act much more effectively than those that were larger ; this, 
however, was an erroneous opinion, as the advantage gained 
by its acting on a smaller space was more than counter- 
balanced by the difficulty of getting it to travel over rough 
land. 

The modern iron roller is a very effective implement. It 
is generally constructed of two or more separate cylinders of 
various diameters, the axis of each being independent of 
the other —thus enabling it to turn with facility, and without 
injuring the crops, whether grass or grain. One, made 6 feet 
6 inches long, and 20 inches diameter, weighs about 9 cwt. 
The barley-roller consists of two cylinders, one a little in 
advance of the other, but in a parallel line. The two inner 
ends cross an inch, so as to leave no land unrolled, and being 
^ jointed by a hook and eye rather loosely, the roller adapts 
I itself to an uneven surface. Each roller is 5 feet long and 
10 inches diameter. 

The NortJiwnbrian Roller consists of two series of iron 
rings, or discs, running loosely on axles ; the wheels, or 
J discs, of one row locking into the other row in front, each 
[f disc of the hinder row thus running between two on the 
first row. . The edges being sharp, similar to Cambridge's 

I 

il ■ • - 



68 



CEOSSKILL^S CLOD-CilUSHEIl. 



roller, it acts well as a clod-cruslier. It is manufactured by 
Oibson and Son, of Newcastle. "Wheels of larger diameter 
are attached to gudgeons, fixed at either end of the machine, 
to facilitate its removal from place to place, similar to those 
described as attached to the Crosskill clod-crusher. 



CEOSSXILL's CLOD-CErSHEE. 

Of all the modern implements introduced, this may be 
pronounced the most valuable and most generally appreciated, 
and the most useful for effecting a variety of different 
mechanical operations, and in giving a fine tilth to the 
soil. 



Kg. ir. 





Crosskill' s roller, as now manufactured, is the result of 
great experience in its use, a variety of improvements having 
been made in it since it was first patented. It has always 
been brought to compete with rollers of similar character, 
and always carried away the prize — no other implement of 
its kind ever having stood the least chance when in compe- 
tition with it. 



CROSSKILL^S CLOD-CHUSHEll. 



GO 



This implement is successfully applied to effect the three 
difierent purposes for which the spike-roller, the jN'orwegiau, 
and the wheel-roller are employed, and effects the object 
better than these three combined. The advantages gained 
by the use of this implement are — first, the lessening the 
expenses of tillage by mechanical aid, in crushing the hardest 
clods, and pulverising the roughest fallow land; secondly, 
in compressing light and puffy soil to grow therefrom 
stronger and more productive plants ; thirdly, in rolling 
cultivated land, and preventing the ravages of the wire-worm 
and grub, thereby increasing the quantity and improving the 
quality of the corn. The machine consists of a series of cast- 
metal rings, or roller-parts, placed loosely upon a round axle, 
and revolving thereon independently of each other, thereby 
producing a self-cleaning action, and by which the machine 
is turned round about on fields of growing corn without 
tearing up the soil, destro}dng the plants, or half burying 
itself in a hole while turning, as many similar implements 
do. The surfaces of the roller-parts are pointed with 
serrated edges and a series of inner teeth, projecting side- 
ways, fixed at a particular angle to the centre of the 
roller-axle, so as to act most efi'ectually in penetrating 
clods perpendicularly, and in consolidating the young plants 
in the soil. The discs on this roller (as originally constructed) 
were fast upon the axle, but they are now made to revolve 
independently of each other, an advantage which not only 
increases its efficiency, but materially lessens the power 
requked for its draught. Another improvement has also 
been made in making the eye larger in the hold, so that 
when revoiviug separately upon the round axle, they cause 
an irregular velocity by the rims perpetually varying, and 
effecting an eccentric, or up and down, action along the whole 
of -the roller parts, thereby increasing its power, and giving 
it the best means for self-cleaniug itself in working. 

As this roller could not be removed from place to place as 



70 



CEOSSKILl's CLOD-CPcUSHEH. 



an ordinary one, two travelling wheels are added of larger 
diameter, so as to lift tlie roller-parts clear off the ground. 
"When tlie roller lias arrived in the field where it is intended 
to he used, a hole has to be dug under each of these travel- 
ling wheels deep enough to let the roller-part down upon the 
ground. The same operation has to be repeated when the 
wheels are to be again placed upon the shaft. 

This machine is now manufactured of a variety of sizes, 
adapted to the various hinds of plants and systems of hus- 
bandry. The following are some of the advantages and 
effects produced by the use of this machine, and a few of the 
purposes to which it may be applied: — Tot crushing the 
hardest clods in the di-iest seasons upon the strongest fallow 
lands, the deep indented edge-points ^of tliis ponderous 
machine penetrate and abrade the roughest clods, reducing 
big masses of clay and baked soil into a fine mould, where, in 
many cases, from the nature of the soil, and the inefficiency 
of other implements, it would be difficult, or even im- 
possible,to prepare the land without the serrated clod-crusher. 
It insures the certainty of a sowing season in the driest 
weather, and rapidly converts many acres of heavy land into 
the finest condition for the reception of grain or the smallest 
seeds, and leaves the soil then equal to once harrowing. 
Spike rollers and Norwegian harrows will not effect this, as 
they drive the large sun-dried clods before them, or pass 
harmlessly over the siuface. It is also valuable on strong 
land farms to prepare the ground before drilling, and again 
roUing over it as soon as sown. Upon lands sown in 
autumn, which are cloddy in the spring, it reduces these, 
and gives a fine surface-mould, while it prepares the soil 
around the roots of the young plants, without in the slightest 
degree injuring them. Upon light soils it is preferred to 
the action of seam-pressers, as. it effects the desired degree 
of tenacity and solidity without leaving a smooth surface, 
and entirely prevents the land from scarping, which fre- 
quently occurs after using a plain roller. 



ceosskill's clod-crusher. 71 

Tlie practice of driving slieep over corn-lands to give 
fii'mness to or fasten the soil, is rendered unnecessary by 
using this machine, as the action of the tread of the sheep is 
well imitated by it, and it effects the object in a more equal 
manner. The serrated teeth (when the land is very light) 
go down to the roots, and firmly secure the young plants in 
the soil, leaving little hillocks, or a harrowed-like surface 
which afi"ords a beautiful protection against cutting winds 
and intense frost. 

Oats, wheat, and barley may be rolled and much improved 
at a cost of 2^. per acre. The action of this roller has been 
well compared to the act of a gardener pressing the mould 
with his fingers round the young plants, while the common 
smooth roller more resembles the act of putting one's foot 
upon the plant, wliich would be likely to destroy it. 

It is also used for preparing land to sow clover, beet, &g. 
It makes the finest bed for the reception of the smallest 
fine seeds. 

Eor staying the ravages of the wireworm, this implement 
is of the greatest possible advantage. I have myself used 
it for the purpose with the greatest success. I have 
rolled one part of a field that was full of wireworm, and 
left the other. The half rolled carried a good crop, while 
that which had been left to itself was utterly destroyed. 

In the Iv07/al Agricultural Society''s Journal^ vol. lY., 
part ii., pp. 560 to 580, will be found a report upon all these 
various advantages said to be obtained from the use of this 
roller, and the replies of an immense number of leading 
jiagriculturists to the following queries : — 

1. How far valuable for crushing clods, and breaking up 

the strongest fallows in the driest seasons ? 

2. _ How far valuable upon strong lands, for rolKng corn as 

soon as sown, and lands sown late in the year, w'hich 
are cloddy in the spring ? 



72 



CROSSKILL's CLOD-CllUSHER. 



3. How far valuable upon light lands, for rolling corn as 

soon as sown, and in tlie spring, after frost ? 

4. How far valuable in stopping the ravages of the wire- 

worm and grub ? 

5. How far valuable upon grass lands, upon mossy lands, 

and worm in meadow lands ? 

To all these queries the most satisfactory answers were 
given, showing that for all the different objects enumerated 
in the queries, this machine was specially valuable, and in 
none more so than in stopping the ravages of the wireworm. 

An immense number of these replies are printed in the 
joiu'nal alluded to, and many contain valuable remarks and 
liints well worth attentive perusal. 

Some people have adopted the plan of rolling between the 
rows of potatoes, beans, &c. (growing crops) ; it is said to 
do what could not otherwise be effected, that is, leaving a 
crushed, pressed, and harrowed-lihe surface between the 
rows, even when the potatoes are grown several inches. 
The 6 feet size of roller is best adapted for this purpose, as 
it will roll three rows at a time. The horse walks in a line 
up the centre row, and the iron discs being removed from 
the axle where the lines of plants occur, and in their places 
iron bushes placed, so dividing the great roller into tlu'ee 
smaller ones. 

A serrated roller of a much lighter description has been 
constructed for fen lands. 

It has been remai'ked that the roller requires much 
judgment in choosing the fitting time to use it, and this 
observation applies more especially to the one we have been 
describing. 



THE HOESE-HOE, 



73 ' 



cambeidge's peess wheel eollee. 

This also is a clod-cruslier of an efficient character. It is 
composed of a number of wheels or discs of iron placed side 
by side, with thin cutting edges. It is considered a useful 
implement, and acts well in crushing clods and preventing 
the ravages of wireworms and slugs, and in rolling pastures. 

A great variety of other rollers are manufactured, and 
called by a variety of distinguishing names, as drill rollers, 
seam or land pressers, &c., the peculiarities of which we 
have not space in this little book to describe. 



THE HOESE-HOE. 

To Jethro TuU (the introducer of the drill system of 
husbandry into England) we are indebted for this most 
valuable implement, he being its original inventor ; for, as 
Mr. Eansome remarks (in his " Implements of Hus- 
bandry"), "previous to his time we search in vain for the 
slightest allusion to such an instrument in the works of any 
writer upon agricultural subjects." 

Tull laid the foundation of the present advanced state of 
agricultural science, in the adoption of what he called horse- 
hoeing husbandry ; indeed, so much was he in advance of 
his time, that it is only now that his works are being 
properly studied and understood ; for although, like most 
enthusiasts, he carried his principles too far, yet in the main 
he was right, and the drill and horse-hoe are the two imple- 
ments upon which depend much of the farmer's success in 
the cultivating crops with profit. 

The horse-hoe possesses immense advantages over hand- 
hoeing, principally in the rapidity of the operation, and 
in the economy of labour ; for, as Mr. Blackie remarks, 

VOL. m. E 



74 



THE HORSE -HOE. 



" expedition is a most material point in all processes of hus- 
bandry carried on in a variable and uncertain climate ; and 
it frequently happens that hoeing in any way can only be 
executed to advantage in a very few days in the spring ; 
hence the horse-hoe has a most decided advantage over the 
hand-hoe, for a man will only hoe about half-an-acre a day 
with the latter, while with the former a man and a boy, with 
one horse, will hoe eight or ten acres a day, and that in a 
more effectual manner." 

Tull's horse-hoe, as he originally contrived it, is repre- 
sented in his book. It is a rude implement, somewhat 
resembling a roughh'-shaped swing-plough, without a mould- 
board, and having the cutting edge of the share turned up 
on the land side. 

Subsequent horse-hoes, while less rude and more inge- 
niously contrived, were all of a simple character, and gene- 
rally resembled swing ploughs fitted with hoes, or were a 
description of implement more resembhng modern grubbers 
or scufilers. One of these bore the name of the Kentish 
nidget, or tormentor, and is described as a horse-hoe with 
triangular shares fixed horizontally at the extremities of 
tines, which are driven into a three-cornered wooden frame 
in cross-bars. At the corner by which the implement is 
drawn, a wheel is fixed, in order to give the coulters their 
proper depth. The shim or broad-share was another descrip- 
tion of implement of the horse-hoe character, as was also an 
implement called HayAvard's extirpator. 

A hoe was invented by the elder "Wilkie, of Teddingstone, 
about the year 1818, and considered a very efiicient 
implement. Three coulters were attached to the body 
and wings of the beam of a plough ; a small harrow fol- 
lowed, and a wheel was placed at the end of the beam 
to regulate the depth, and facilitate the turning it and 
clearing it of weeds. 

A horse-hoe with parallel motion was invented by the 



GAERETT^S HOESE-HOE. 



75 



younger "Wilkie, which admitted of easy expansion and 
contraction, to suit the different widths of drills. 

"Weir's expanding horse-hoe was of a similar character, and 
might be worked either as a hoe or as a double mould-board 
plough. 

Besides these, others were constructed by Morton, of 
Edinburgh, Hawick, Brodie, Henry, and others. 

Blalcie's Horse-lioe. — This was the first implement that 
was successfully employed in hoeing between several rows of 
turnips at once ; it was the invention of Mr. Blakie (author 
of a treatise on farm-yard manure), and was made by him 
while manager of the estates of the Earl of Leicester, and is 
the foundation of many of the most approved horse-hoes now 
in use. 

Granfs Sorse-hoe is a well-arranged implement, and an 
addition was afterwards made to it, by which all the 
hoes could be instantly raised, should they become choked 
with weeds or rubbish. 

An immense variety of every description of horse-hoes are 
now to be met with at Agricultural Societies' meetings, and 
the farmer may there choose such as he considers best 
adapted to his land or peculiar manner of cultivation. 

Among these the horse-hoes of Messrs. G-arrett of 
Leiston, Mr. Smith of Kettering, Mr. Howard of Bedford, 
and Mr. Hensman, are conspicuous for possessing all the 
requisite qualities that should be met with in this description 
of implement. As nearly all the makers of agTicultural 
machines manufacture horse-hoes of an approved character, 
it will be impossible to notice more than one or two of those 
whose improvements have brought them more prominently 
before the pubHc than others, and foremost of these is — 

gaeeett's hoese-hoe. 

This is one of the most efficient implements of its kind, 
the greatest possible care having been taken by the Messrs. 



gaeeett's hoese-hoe. 



Garrett to add to it every improvement that practice or 
theory shall have pointed out, to render it more perfect, and 
nearly everything that can possibly be required of such an 
instrument may be found in this machine. It has had prizes 
awarded to it at Liverpool, Bristol, Derby, Southampton, 
JSTorthampton, York, Xorwich, Exeter, and at the Great 
Exhibition, a Council medal. 

Com or roots of every khid, drilled in rows of not less than 
seven inches apart, may be hoed in a perfect manner, and 
at a cost, it is said, of about 6d. an acre. 

" This implement," says the report of it in the Journal 
of tlie 'Royal Agricultural Society, is so complete in itself, 
as to be fully suited to all methods of cultivation, whether 
broad, stitch, or ridge ploughing ; and is adapted for hoeing 
corn of all sorts as well as roots. The peculiar advantages 
of this implement are as follow : it may be increased or dimi- 
nished in size, to suit all lands or methods of planting ; the 
axletree being moveable at both ends, either wheel may be 
expanded or contracted, so as always to be kept between the 
rows of the plants. The shafts are readily altered, and put 
to any part of the frame, so that the horses may either walk 
in the furrow, or in any direction to avoid injury to the crop. 
Each hoe works in a lever, independent of the others, so that 
no part of the surface to be cut, however uneven, can escape ; 
and, in order to accommodate this implement for the conso- 
lidated earth of the wheat crop, and also the more loosened 
top of spring corn, roots, &c., the hoes are pressed in by 
diiferent weights being hung upon each lever, and adjusted 
by keys or chains, to prevent them going beyond the proper 
depth. "What has hitherto been an insuperable objection to 
the general use of the horse-hoe is over-ruled in this by the 
novel and easy method of steering, so that the hoes may be 
guided to the greatest nicety, if common caution be used, 
doing every execution among the weeds, without injury to the 
crop. This implement is so constructed, that the hoes may 



smith's steerage horse-hoe. 



77 



be set to any widtli, from seven inches to any wider space. 
For tlie purpose of hoeing all kinds of corn, the inverted 
hoes onlj are preferred ; but for the root crops, where the 
rows of plants are wider (say 16 inches or more), an extra 
hoe, of a semicircular form, is placed od a separate lever, 
working between and in advance of the two inverted hoes, 
for the more effectually cutting all the land, however uneven 
the surface, by the three separate hoes working independently 
of each other between the rows. The hoes are of peculiar 
improved manufactui'e, the blades being of steel, and made 
separate, and attached to a socket handle, in a simple and 
easy, yet effectual manner, so that any husbandman may 
replace them; and being manufactured by the patentees at an 
exceedingly low price, no difficulty can arise in replacing 
those parts subject to wear. In order to set the hoes in a 
proper cutting position, for either flat or stitcli ploughing, 
and so as thoroughly to cut either hard or soft ground, the 
levers are put into a more or less oblique position, causing 
the cutting edges of the hoes to be more or less inclining 
downwards, by raising or lowering the jointed irons to which 
the forward ends of the levers are suspended and swung ; 
which is done by merely moving the pin which rests upon the 
frame into different holes." 



smith's steeeage hoese-hoe 

Is one of the very best implements of the kind that I know 
of, and one that I should much recommend to small farmers 
1 as a cheap and truly efficient implcDient. It may be adapted 
1 to a variety of purposes, and the cost for one completely 
■ fitted up varies from 51. to 71. only. 

• It is so complete in itself, that it is fully suited to aU 
:|Sorts of drilled crops, either flat or ridged, and is adapted 
^for hoeing wheat, barley, peas, beans, mangold-wurtzel, or 
^•^aiurnips, at any given width that may be required. 



78 



HOYv^ARD^'s HORSE-HOE. 



The axletrees are made moveable at both ends, so that 
either ATheel may be set further out, or closer in, thus 
adapting itself to keep between the rows of plants, and suit 
itself to all lands and methods of planting. 

The person operating with this implement has the power 
of guiding it between the rows with the greatest nicety, and 
while thoroughly hoeing and tearing up the weeds, pre- 
venting the slightest injury being done to the plants, the 
steerage being quite independent of the horse, and so simple 
that any one may control it with the greatest ease. 

The working depth of the hoes is regulated by placing the 
levers in a more or less oblique direction, which is done by 
merely moving the pin which goes through the shaft-iron 
into different holes, thus inclining the hoes more or less 
downwards, and better suiting it to cut either hard or soft 
ground. The width of the hoes is regulated by loosening 
the screws of the clip which fastens them upon the wrought 
iron bar or bars upon which they are placed. The two out- 
side hoes may be placed parallel with the wheels, so as to 
cut the ground which they run upon. A seed drill can be 
attached, for sowing small seeds, and driven by a pulley on 
one of the wheels. 

Howard's hoese-hoe 

Is made entirely of -wrought iron, and intended for one row 
of beans, peas, tiu-nips, &c. It has three shares, which are 
made to slide upon the frame, so as to take the various 
widths required ; it has two wheels fitted to a swing head, 
working upon a centre bolt, and the draught being central, 
the implement is not affected by any irregular motion of the 
horses. This arrangement, also, causes the implement to 
work much steadier. 



busby's house-hoe. 



79 ' 



hill's hoese-hoe. 

This is an expanding liorse-lioe, invented by Edward Hill, 
of Erierly, near Dudley. It is intended for one row of 
turnips, beans, potatoes, &c., and has three sliares, wliicli can 
be expanded or constructed to the desired width, by pressure 
upon the handles only, and which can be performed whilst 
the hoe is at work, with the greatest certainty as to distance. 
A small Norwegian harrow works behind the hoes, which 
not only has the effect of steadying the implement when at 
work, but which is also very effective in bringing weeds, &c,, 
to the surface, and thus saving repeated hoeing, caused by 
weeds growing again when not brought effectually to the 
surface. The improvement consists in the slides of the 
hoe, upon which the wings work or expand, being placed 
upon, and in fact forming part of the ^ings, and sliding 
through the centre bar of the implement, so that these slides 
cannot project beyond the cutting parts of the implement. 
The above description is copied from the catalogue of the 
implement exhibited at the Lewes meeting of the E-oyal 
A gricultural S o ciety . 



Fig. 18. 




BrSBT's HOESE-HOE. 

Pig. 18 represents a most excellent implement of this 



80 



ilAXUEE DISTRIBUTOES, 



class, and one tiiat has gained several prizes. It is sliown so 
clearly in tlie 'vrood-ciit as not to requii^e any furtlier 
description, A portion of tlie stilts or liandles hare been 
removed to get it on tlie page. 



CHAPTEE IT. 

ILA^TEE DISTEIBrTOES. 

A TAEiETY of macliines have been constructed for the 
purpose of distributing maniu^e, botL. liquid and in a solid 
state. 

For crops that are drilled, tbe best plan is to deposit the 
manui'e vritli tbe seed, as described in the chapter on di'ills ; 
but as all crops are not drilled, and it is of importance to 
sow some manure broad-cast, ingenious contrivances have 
been made for effecting that purpose. 

For the distribution of liquid manui'e, no system can 
equal the laying dovm mains (as practised by J^Ir. Huxtable, 
Mr. Mechi, and other gentlemen), and forcing the liquid 
through the pipes by force-pumps, worked by the steam- 
engine of the farm or some other motive power. Doubtless 
this may be very expensive in the first outlay, but I am 
satisfied it is the ti^ue plan, and will turn out the most 
economical in the end. When the practice of using manure 
liquid is better understood, and a hundred times the quantity 
used, which will be the case when the facilities (before 
alluded to) exist for distributing it, then not only vrill the 
liquid manure drained from the stalls and yards be sent 
to the land in a diluted state, but liquid manure will be 
manufactured by dissolving guano, and other concentrated 
manures, in water — carrying them to the land in this state 
instead of the ordinary plan of sowing — by which a very 



MANURE DISTRIBUTORS. 



81 



large portion, the most valuable ingredients of tlie article, 
is lost. This fact is generally rendered pretty evident by 
the strong smell existing in the fields surrounding the one 
on which guano is being sown broad-cast. Drilling is 
doubtless a much more economical method, but this has its 
disadvantages, and cannot always be done. 

Carts for distributing liquid manure are made by most 
agricultural implement-manufacturers of an efficient cha- 
racter, and at a moderate price. They are often fitted with 
pumps as part of the machine, and the best are made 
entirely of iron. An excellent specimen is made by Mr. 
Crosskill. The body of the cart is made entirely of iron 
plates, securely cemented and bolted together, and will con- 
tain about 100 gallons. It is fitted with a brass outlet 
valve, acted upon by an iron level rod, with which the driver 
opens and closes the valve, while walking by the side of the 
horse. The newly invented pendulum-spreading apparatus 
is attached, which regulates a sliding front adapted to water 
equally upon uneven land, six feet broad-cast ; also, an 
improved apparatus for watering four rows of turnips at a 
time, by the use of four flexible tubes, guided by two lads 
with handles. Ey this means dissolved bones, and diluted 
sulphuric acid, or guano water, may be applied to water the 
ridges or rows any required width ; an addition may be also 
made of one or two partitions inside across the cart-body to 
prevent the surging of the liquid upon uneven or bad roads. 
The objection to Crosskill's former cart was its not watering 
equally upon uneven lands, as when it passed over a slope or 
inclined surface the hquid naturally flowed to the lowest end 
of the fixed spreading board. By the improved method, 
the cart will water equally weU. whether the land be uneven 
or not. The apparatus being suspended to a pivot, with a 
regulating guide, it is fitted with pump and hose, and costs 
about lol. It is an exceedingly complete thing, and one 
that can be recommended with safety. 

E 3 



82 



CHANDLEE^S MANUEE DISTEIBUTOE. 



Messrs. Deane, Draj, & Co., sell a manure tumbler cart, 
wliicli is mucli approved of. It has a wrought iron body 
and is suspended between two wheels of 4 feet 6 inches 
diameter insuch a manner as to be filled and unloaded with 
great facility. 

A very good liquid manure cart may be made by placing 
a barrel between a pair of Indian w^heels. A tap at the 
back discharges the liquid into a trough placed cup-ways, 
and bored full of holes. 

ELYTH's BEOAD-CAST MANTJEE DISTEIBUTOE. 

This implement has been but recently introduced. It is 
manufactured by Garrett's, of Leiston, and gained a prize 
at Lewes. It is for the purpose of distributing regularly all 
kinds of natural and artificial manures, and the novelty con- 
sists in the arrangement of the machinery for the perfect 
delivery of those most difficult to distribute. 

The manure is delivered from the box by means of a 
barrel, consisting of a shaft fitted with prongs, which carry 
over the manure, and, in doing so, it comes in contact with 
a series of scrapers, which rise with, and clean the barrel as 
it rotates the manure ; then passing down the shoots, or 
conductors, it is evenly distributed all over the surface, or in 
rows, as may be required. The shoots, or conductors, are 
furnished with wire rods, fixed in alternate lines, giving 
them the efiect of a sieve, whereby the manure is separated 
and pulverised as it falls. 

Chandler's Manure Distributor is represented in fig. 19. 
It is an excellent invention, and consists of three sets of 
buckets, working on an endless chain similar to chain pumps 
and dredging engines. The cistern will contain two and a 
half hogsheads, and will distribute from the smallest quan- 
tity to 40 hogsheads per acre. It has obtained several 
prizes, and is much in request. Straw, leaves, and other 




CH.AJN-DLEP.'S PATEXT LIQUID ilAXUEE DRILL, 



84 



SOWTN'G :\IACHI>'E3. 



matter that clogs most macliines of tliis class, are, in this 
case, carried over with great facility. 

CHAXDLEE's patent liquid iilAXUEE DEILL 

Is on the same principle, and also much approved of. This 
machine will drill liquid with seed in any state of fluidity, 
and any quantity, from 3 to 10 hogsheads per acre ; it will 
also distribute liquid manui^e broad-cast for top-dressings. 
It is the invention of Thomas Chandler, Esq., Aldburn, 
improved and manufactured by Thomas James Eeeves, of 
Eratton, near T^'^estbuiy, Wilts. 



CHAPTEE Y. 

SOWI^s'G MACHINES 

Chiefly consist of drills. In the early history of agriculture 
sowing was all done broad-cast ; indeed no other method 
would have suited the cultivation of the description of lauds 
first sown with corn. Machiues for the regular distribution 
of corn, or corn and special manures, have nevertheless been 
invented and used in the East from a very early date. The 
farmers of India, Japan, and Arabia have, from time 
immemorial, drilled and dibbled in their seeds. 

The Chinese sowing machine of the present dav resembles 
in some respects a hand barrow, and in others a small 
plough, and has three hollow teeth of about 28 inches in 
length, vdth iron supports, and carries the seeds in a box 
above the wheels, and di'ops them thence through the teeth 
to the ground in rows. It follows the plough, and is itself 
followed by a roller, which answers the purpose of a harrow. 
The Hindoos deposit the seed in a similar way. Gabriel 



SOWING MACHINES. 



85 



Platte describes a rude dibbling macbine formed of iron 
pins, made to play up and down like virginal jacks : " and 
about twenty years later, 1669, Jolm AYorlidge, in Ins 

Husbandry," not only advocated tbe use of a seed-drill, 
but a manure-drill also. Evelyn strongly recommended the 
Sembrador drill-plougli to Englishmen. This was the inven- 
tion of a Spaniard, Don Joseph de Lescatello. It was 
fastened to the tail of a plough, and dropped the seed 
regularly in the furrow, a]id is said to have effected the 
sowing of a given area with a saving of about one-fifth of 
the seed usually deposited by broad-cast sowing. Some 
writers state that this machine was invented in G-ermany 
and carried from thence into Spain. It was in the latter 
coimtry, however, that it attracted the notice of the Earl of 
Sandwich, the English ambassador, and he forwarded it to 
this country as a Spanish invention ; but it seems to have 
been looked upon merely as an agricultural curiosity, and no 
regular use seems to have been made of it until Jethro Tull, 
in 1730, devoted all his abilities and energies to bring it into 
use, to more readily perfect and introdtice his great idea, 
horse-hoeing husbandry. Tull, dehghted with the advantage 
gained by the use of the two instrtiments, soon set about 
improving the sowing machine. EQs first invention was a 
kind of plough, T^ith drill attached, for sowing wheat and 
turnips in three rows at a time ; it consisted of two seed- 
boxes with a coulter attached to each, and foUowine; each 
other ; behind them followed a harrow to cover in the seed. 
His object in having two separate deposits of seed, and at 
difterent depths, was that they might not sprout at the same 
time, and so perhaps escape the ravages of the flv. Tull 
also invented a turnip-drill, and in the cultivation of tarnips 
his practice was more applicable than to wheat, for he was 
deceived by theoretic notions in reference to the capability 
of the soil to supply the food of the plants, and instead of 

carrying out an elficient system of drilling and hoeing, he 



86 



SOWING MACHINES. 



attempted to grow com year after year on the same soil 
without manuring. His tiu-nip-drill was similar to the other, 
but lighter. The feeding spout was so arranged as to carry 
one-half backwards after the earth had faUen into the 
channel ; a harrow was pinned to the beam, and by this 
arrangement one-half of the seed sprung up sooner than the 
other, and so escaped the ravages of the turnip-fly. Tull 
adopted here for the first time the plan of having cavities 
formed in solid cylinders for the purpose of feeding. 

jN'othing more seems to have been done towards drill 
improvements until about forty years afterwards, when Sir 
James Anstruther introduced to the Bath and "West of 
England Society one of his own inventiou, and vrhich he had 
previously used for about eight years without its getting at 
aU deranged. It was a double driU-plough, constructed 
for sowing two furrows at once, the horse walking betvreen, 
that the soil might not be injured by the tread of the 
horse's feet. 

During the next dozen years as many patents were taken 
out, two of which were for effecting the double operation of 
depositing both seed and manure at the same time ; yet none 
of these came much into use until James Cooke, a clergyman 
of Heaton Norris, in Lancashire, invented the drill, upon 
which is founded all the machines now in use, for its prin- 
ciples are adopted, more or less, in every one of them. In 
Mr. !Ransome's book is a cut of this drill, and the following 
description : — 

"The seed-box is of a peculiar shape, the hinder part 
extending lower than the fore part. It is divided by par- 
titions, and supported by adjustable bearings, so as to 
preserve a regular delivery of the seed, whilst the machine 
is passing over uneven ground. The feeding cylinder is 
made to revolve by a toothed wheel, which is fixed on each 
end of the main axle, and gears with other toothed wheels 
on each end of the cylinder ; the surface of the cylinder is 



SOWING MACHINES. 



fumislied with a series of cups, whicii revolve witli it, and 
are of various sizes, according to the different seeds intended 
to be sown. These deposit the seed regularly in funnels, 
the lower ends of v.'hich lead immediately behind the coulters, 
which are connected by a beam so as to be kept in an even 
line, and are capable of being held out of working when 
desired by a hook and link in the centre. The seed, as it is 
deposited, is covered in by a harrow fixed on behind. The 
carriage wheels are larger than usual, by which means the 
machine is more easily drawn over uneven ground, and the 
labour of working is reduced." 

About the year 1790, Cooke's drill having found its way 
into Norfolk, fell into the hands of Henry Baldwin, a farmer 
living near Harleston, who, aided by a local workman named 
Samuel "Wells, contrived several ingenious improvements to 
the machine, the first of which was in making a sliding axle- 
tree, by which the carriage-wheel could be extended when 
necessary to the width of the stitches, and so enable another 
box with cups and more coulters to be used. A drill con- 
taining fourteen coulters could be thus enlarged to contain 
eighteen, or even twent}^ 

He also constructed self-regulating levers, to which the 
coulters were attached ; by hanging each coulter on a sepa- 
rate lever, each lever swinging by an ordinary hinge joint, 
and having a movable weight at the outer end to press the 
coulter into the soil to the required depth. 

These two improvements are both in use at this day, and 
must have at the time very much advanced the reputation of 
the implement for efficiency and ability to work on land 
having an irregular surface, as the levers hanging inde- 
pendently of each other were able to adjust themselves to 
any irregularities they might meet mthout disturbing the 
whole machine, as was the case with the origiiial Cooke's 
drill. 

Erom this time the, patents for improvements in drills 



8S 



SOWING MACHINES. 



have been very numerous, and tlie competition in tlieir 
manufacture at the present time among some of the most 
eminent agricultural implement makers brings into the 
market an immense variety of machines adapted to every 
conceivable requirement that peculiarity of land, style of 
farming, or description of seed or manure to be deposited, 
may suggest. 

Before proceeding further ^ith the subject of di^ills, it 
may be better perhaps if I describe in the shortest manner 
possible the principle and arrangements of the parts of the 
ordinary drill as in general use ; for though there are a 
variety of ingenious mechanical contrivances attached, pecu- 
liar to each, yet the general arrangement is the same, as is 
the object for which each one of its class is constructed. 
The ordinary drill consists of an oblong box, mounted in a 
pecuHar manner upon a carriage with large wheels ; this box 
is divided longitudinally with a partition, thus making two 
compartments, the inner one being called the seed box, and 
the outer one the delivery box. In the seed box is placed 
the grain intended to be sown, and in the partition between 
the two boxes are a series of openings called pigeon-holes, 
through which the seed is allowed to pass into the delivery 
box, the quantity being regulated by small slides, which will 
be more particularly described hereafter. 

In the bottom of the delivery box are a series of holes 
(communicating with pipes or shoots below) ; in these holes 
are placed small tin hoppers which stand a considerable 
lieight above the bottom. Erom end to end of the delivery box 
there is placed a spindle or small shaft, and upon this 
wrought iron discs, as many as there are holes in the bottom 
of the box. Projecting from the side of the discs are a 
series of small stalks, having at their outer ends little cups, 
thus forming a number of little spoons. By an arrangement 
of wheel work, connected with the wheels of the carriage of 
the machine, those discs are made to revolve along with the 



SOWING MACHINES. 



89 



sliaft upon which they are placed, and in doing this they 
take up from the bottom of the box the seed which has been 
admitted from the seed box, and as they pass round, drop it 
into the hoppers before mentioned, through which it passes 
into a pipe, to be conveyed to the ground, Avhere a proper 
place has been prepared for it by another portion of the 
machine. 

Attached to a portion of the fore part of the carriage, by 
hinges, are a series of lever bars, upon which are placed 
coulters, numbering as many as there are pipes descending 
from the delivery box ; weights are placed upon the levers 
to press the coulters into the ground to the desired depth ; 
and as the machine moves forward, each coulter opens a 
little furrow, into which the seed from the pipe is deposited. 
Such a drill as I have described would merely deposit seed, 
but now that so much valuable artificial manure is used, 
drills are constructed to sow manure along with the seed. 
Wlien this is the case, another box for the manure is pro- 
vided, and an additional set of pipes, coulters, and other 
apparatus. The first coulter then opens a rut, into which 
the' manure passes from the pipes; a forked piece of iron 
follows, which covers a little of the mould over the manure ; 
the next coulter follows, and after it the seed is deposited in 
the manner shown in the annexed diagram. 



Fig. 21. 




The bottom stratum is the manure ; above that a thin layer 
of mould, to prevent the manure and seed coming in contact ; 
upon that the seed to be sown, and over that again some 
more earth ; the seed then being placed in the most eligible 
state to be brought to maturity. 



90 



SOTTIXG MACHINES. 



The operation of drilling may thns, by tlie most approTed 
macMnes, be considered almost perfect ; but it Tvas bv no 
means in that state Tvhen Tve left it as improved by Baldwin. 

Prom that point it was taken in hand by two brothers, 
James and Jonathan Smyth, of Peasenhall and of Swefling, 
in Snifolk, "who (as stated by J\Ir. Eansome, in his book), 
in manufactnring this implement, for upwards of 40 years, 
brought it by their unremitting attention and ingenuity to 
the highest state of perfection," and Smyth's drills are, at 
the present time, considered as among the very best 
in use. 

The improrements of these gentlemen were rery numerous, 
but among the most important may be considered their im- 
provements in the form of the manure box, trundle plates, and 
delivery cups ; a mode of adjusting the distances between the 
coulters ; a sicing steerage, by which means the coulters could 
be forced from right to left or left to right, so as to pre- 
serve the parallelism of the lines for sowing the seed'; and also 
the very important addition oithe apparatus fcrr soidng manure 
and corn and small seeds at the same time. Besides these, 
they also introduced some important improvements in driving 
the barrels, and adjusting the coulters, by means of the fluted 
roller and chain gearing now in common use. 

BoHowing upon these improvements of the Smyths, 
Messrs. Garrett have considerably improved this machine, 
by making the ends of the machine of iron instead of wood, 
as well as some better arrangements for changing the speed- 
wheels, also the adding another wheel to the opposite end 
of the machine, which equalises the velocity of the delivery 
cups, in ascending and descending hills, one wheel being 
used for going up, and the other for coming down ; also a 
regulating screw, to raise and lower the box, and arrange- 
ment for extending or contracting the width of the di^ill. 

Messrs. Hornsby have also much improved some of the 
details of their drills, by the introduction of some ingenious . 



GAERETT^S GENERAL PURPOSE DRILL. 



91 



contrivances : 1st. Por regulating the position of tlie boxes 
while the machine is on sideling ground. This is done by- 
means of a long screw, worked by a winch at one end, and 
secured by two bearings ; two smaU arms, the upper ends of 
which are attached to the end of the box, and the lower ones 
work upon the screw, which, as it turns, brings the arms 
nearer together, or removes them farther apart, thus lowering 
or raising the box, as may be required, with the greatest 
nicety. 

2ndly. A swing steerage, which allows of the coulters 
being maintamed in a straight line with the greatest ease, 
and is worked by double handles attached to a toothed 
segment, and giving the operator great power over the 
machine. 

3rdly. In a better arrangement for regulating the supply 
of seed from the seed box to the delivery box by means of a 
small shaft, having a cog-wheel placed at every aperture, or 
pigeon-hole. These act upon small racks in the manner of 
sluices, and regulate the supply with ease, certainty, and 
accuracy. 

4thly. In the introduction of vulcanised India-rubber 
tubes, instead of a succession of conical tins, for conveying 
the seed from the delivery box to the ground. These tubes 
are said to be much superior to the tins when drilling in 
windy and rainy weather. 

The use of flexible tubes is not new, as leather tubes have 
frequently been tried, but were found to wear out too 
rapidly. Mr. Hornsby's improvement consists in the appli- 
cation of vulcanised Indian-rubber for this purpose. 

Garrett's geis-eral-ptjrpose drill. 

"Fig. 22 represents the general-purpose drill of Messrs. 
G-arrett, and it is considered one of the very best drills 
manufactured, Messrs. Garrett having bestowed great pains 



92 



gaeeett's general purpose deill. 



in perfecting tliis implement bj adding every improvement 
that practice could suggest for rendering it more effective. 



Fig. 22. 




It is adapted for performing all the various operations of 
seeding and manuring the land. All kinds of grain and 
seeds may be deposited at any required distances apart, and 
at any depth, either with or without compost or artificial 
manures. 

They are constructed of various widths, and made to 
deposit the seed in rows from six to fifteen in number, and 
to suit all descriptions of land, whether ploughed flat or 
in rido-es. The corn and manure are sometimes sown throuo-h 
the same deKvery tubes, but it is better when double tubes 
and coulters are adopted, as the seed is then buried two or 
three inches deeper than the seed (as before described), and 
a portion of mould placed between the two. The boxes are 
suspended on a centre in the middle of the machine, and 
may be elevated or depressed, at either end, by means of a 
lever, so as to keep them at all times in a horizontal position, 



AN ECONOMICAL THEEE-UOW DEILL. 



93 



and to insure a regular delivery of botli on liilly as well as 
flat lands. This arrangement admits of the barrels, wliich 
deliver tlie manure and seeds, being driven by gear at tlie 
ends of the boxes in tbe usual way, thus avoiding all 
unnecessary complication. 

Besides the general-purpose drill, Messrs. Garrett con- 
struct a great variety of this class of machines adapted to 
the various requirements of the agriculturists ; and, although 
the general-purpose drill fully deserves its name, yet, when 
the farm is large, it is much better to have other machines 
made expressly for the purpose. Among these may be 
mentioned : — 

A Drill for Turnips and Manure on the Flat, which 
deposits two or three or four rows of turnip or other seeds, 
with compost or artificial manures, on either flat or ridge 
ploughed lands. This machine is fitted with separate seed 
boxes for each row, placed on a horizontal bar, and may be 
shifted to suit the intervals between the drills, so as to 
come directly over the delivery spouts, and allow the con- 
ductors to work freely. The boxes are partitioned off" into 
two compartments, one larger than the other, so that when 
drilling beet and turnip seeds together, sufficient of each to 
last an equal time may be put into the boxes at once. An 
apparatus is also provided for regulating the level of the 
seed and manure boxes. 

An economical Tliree-row Drill for Turnips, Sfc, with 
Manure on the Flat or Bidge. — It is a cheap and efficient 
machine for drilling turnips, mangold-wurtzel, &c., with 
rape-cake dust, guano, Irish peat charcoal, or any light 
pulverised material. It is calculated for two rows from 20 
to 28 inches apart, or three rows at 16 inches apart, and 
the quantity of seed may be delivered as required — say, 
for turnips, 1 to 6 lb. per acre ; and beet seeds, 3 to 8 lb. 
per acre — the former being delivered by the action of 
brushes, and the latter by a revolving barrel. The 



94 



TWO-ROW EIDGE DEILL. 



quantity of manure majbe regulated from 2 to 24 busliels 
per acre. 

This machine comprises most of the important features of 
the more expensive implements. It is 4 feet wide, and 
36 feet 8 inches high, and weighs ahout 3 cwt. The cost 
does not exceed 13Z. 

Hornsby's General-purpose Drill. — This is an efficient 
machine, ha™g been much improved by Messrs. Hornsby 
in the manner before alluded to — that is in the plan of 
adjusting the box on sideling ground, in the substitution of 
India-rubber tubes for the old tin conductors, the regulating 
the supply of seed from the seed to the delivery box in the 
swing steerage, and in a great variety of other minor details. 
It is capable of drilling every kind of seed and corn, with or 
without manure, in any required quantities, and at any 
distance apart. Both seed and manure can be regulated 
while the drill travels. The agitator in the manure-chamber 
is so arranged that the man who follows can, by simply 
moving a lever, put it in or out of action without stopping 
the progress of the machine. 

An improvement has been also made by having two 
coulter bars, by which arrangement the weights upon the 
ends of the levers have exactly the same pressure upon 
every coulter, thereby depositing the seed at an uniform 
depth. 

Messrs. Hornsby, like Messrs. Garrett, manufacture every 
other description of drill, adapted to large or small farms, 
for the various kinds of seed and methods of so^^cj. Tior. 23 
represents the Tico-o'ow 'Ridge Drill by this firm, which 
received a prize at the Great Exhibition of 1851. It has 
adapted to it various improvements for regularly delivering 
both seed and manure, the same as in the general-purpose 
drill ; and equal facility is afibrded for altering the quantity 
of manure it is depositing as it travels forward. The manure 
coulters are placed before the concave rollers; the ridges 



IIENSMA^v'^S DEILL. 95 

re then brouglit into tlie proper form, and tlie seed is 



Fig. 23. 




leposifced and followed by tlie second rollers, leaving 
He ridges perfect. 

I This is often called tlie Bedfordsliire drill ; it was origi- 
iially invented by Eobert Salmon, of "\Toburn, but bas been 
jiiuch improved by other parties since — first by two brothers 
iiamed Bachelor, machinists, residing at Lidlington, near 
ISedford, and by Smith, of Kempston, but more particularly 
'»y Mr. Hensman. 

I- It is an ef&cient little implement, but is not adapted to 

?(he variety of purposes that the other kind of drills are. 
I 

I 



96 



HOENSBY's drill POR SilALL OCCLTIEES. 



A modification of tliis is constructed by William Hensman 
& Son, of Woburn, who received a silver medal for it at 
the York meeting, in 1848, and a prize medal at the Great 
Exhibition. 

This machine has several peculiarities, in which it differs 
materially from the generality of other drills. First, that 
the carriage rests upon the coulters instead of the coulters 
hanging from the carriage : the coulters are similar in form 
to a skate, and are in consequence very effective in pene- 
trating hard ground, and in giving a firm bed to wheat sown in 
soft. The axletrees are made to slide, so that the wheels can 
be set to any width. Secondly. In the manner in which the 
seed box, &c., is supported between two standards, which give 
great facility for balancing it. A lever is placed through an 
aperture in the centre of the box for striking the barrel in 
and out of gear, and a very ingenious contrivance is adopted 
for adjusting the varying length of the diiving shaft. A seed 
box is made to fix on the corn box, for the purpose of sowing 
clover and other small seeds broadcast at the same time as 
barley is being drilled ; or it may be attached without the 
corn box, and used for sowing turnips or otlier small seeds ; 
or it may be converted into a horse-hoe, by attaching hoes 
to the levers instead of coulter shares. 



HOEJs'SBX's DEILL rOB SMALL OCCLPIEES. 

This is a very simple and cheap machine, and well adapted 
to the wants of small occupiers ; it is made to work on the * 
ridge, and deposit turnip or mangold- wurtzel seed, with or • 
without manures ; it may be fitted with rollers before and 
after the manure coulter, with a double-actioned lever. The ; 
maniu'e and seed coulter act independently of each other ; '■ 
the manure can be deposited deep, and covered, and the seed 
at a shallower depth, as in the large and more expensive 

ii 



SEED MACHINES. 97 

implements. T);vo-row ridge-di'ills of the same character are 
also made bj the same house. 



Fig. 24. 




hornsbt's deill for small occupiers. 



DEOP DEILLS. 

Of these several varieties exist ; they are for the purpose 
of depositing the seed in patches, and fixed intervals apart, 
and more resembling the action of dibbling than drilling. 
Thev are constructed in many respects similar to ordinary 
drills, but with this difference, that they have at the bottom 
of the delivery-spouts a chamber containing a valve, which 
regulates the egress of the seed in the manner before 
described. 

SEED MACHINES 

Are long triangular- shaped boxes, having a small shaft 

: running through them ; upon this are fitted a number of 
little brushes, which, as they revolve, force the seed through 
apertures in the fore-side of the box, which is carried on 

^ a small barrow, on which it is laid crosswise. 

'i 

1 

; VOL. nr. E 



98 



DIBBLING MACHINES. 



Fig. 25 




DIBBLING MACHINES. 

It is the general opinion of the best judges tliat dibbled 
crops are much superior to those drilled, but machines for 
effecting this desirable object are by no means in such a 
state as could be wished, although many ingenious and really 
usefid machines have been invented and constructed by 
different individuals ; amongst the most prominent of whom 
is the gentleman whose hand-dibbling machine we have 
engraved. 

In the Journal of tlie Hoyal Agricultural Society, is a 
report of Newberry's dibbler. The judges say, " We have 
examined the effects of Mr. Newberry's dibbling machine, 
and have no hesitation in reporting the superiority of the 
wheat crops where the seed had been planted by that 
instrument, over those which have been sown broad-cast or 
drilled." We must not omit mentioning the very ingenious 
machine exhibited at the Great Exhibition, called the 
walking dibbler. 



REAPING MACHINES. 



99 



it 

CHAPTEE YI. 

EEAPIJTG MACHIITES. 

TJpoi^" no implement (of late years) has so much attention 
been concentrated as upon reaping machines. There 
have been trials in almost every country ; while newspapers, 
who seldom condescend to notice the progress of agricul- 
tural mechanics, gave whole columns to the reports of 
them, practical farmers paid the greatest possible amount of 
attention to the subject, offered every facility for the trials, 
gave judgment upon their respective merits, with a candour 
and fairness that does them infinite credit. 

The great excitement (for it arrived at that), about reaping 
machines was in consequence of the success of two exhibited 
by Americans, named M'Cormick and Hussey, and who, I 
believe, might have exhibited anywhere else, again and 
again, without notice ; but nothing in the Great Exhibition 
of 1851 escaped proper notice, great or small ; whether it was 
the ponderous 68-pounder cannon of the Low Moor Iron 
Company, or the minutest portion of the machinery of a 
j watch, it was sure to be seen, appreciated, and talked about 
j by those who were interested in it : and the general public, 
I who seldom trouble themselves about what does not imme- 
I diately concern them, made up their minds in this case to 
It examine everything, and try to understand them, if possible, 
jl Ladies were seen underneath locomotive engiaes, examining 
j cranks, connecting rods, and eccentric gear, on one side of 
. the building, or hurting themselves and damaging their 
jl clothes with spiky rollers, harrows, grubbers, scarifiers, and 



100 



EE APING MACHINES. 



pulverisers, on the other. Not a little either was due to the 
Times newspaper who, in much over-praising the American 
productions of reaj^ng machines, and a fast-sailing yacht, 
calculated on giving a hard rub to the supineness of their 
special friends the farmers and shipowners : and in the case 
of farmers they were perfectly right — not in the superior 
ability of American mechanics, but in the shrewdness of 
that people in calling to their aid machinery constructed to 
cheapen the cost of agricultural operations ; for, will it be 
believed, that the best reaping machine was invented in 
England many years ago, and although it was most regularly 
exhibited at Agricultural Societies' Meetings, and had pre- 
miums awarded to it, yet neither the farmers nor the 
agricultural implement-makers would have anything to do 
with it, and the thing was utterly neglected. I of course 
allude to Bell's machine, publicly exhibited in 1828, As a 
proof that little attention has been paid to this machine, T 
made some trifling experiments on a corn reaping machine 
in ] 847, and was so led to see what had been done in the way 
of such machines. On meeting with an eminent agricultural 
implement-maker soon after, I inquired if he knew anything 
about reaping machines, and whether Bell's would at all 
answer in practice ; he at once assured me that there was 
nothing of the kind in existence that would work half an 
hour without getting broken to pieces, and that Bell's 
machine was only an ingenious contrivance, but utterly i 
worthless for any practical purpose, so I did nothing more ' 
in reaping machines. Six years after, at the Smithfield Club 
Show, in Baker Street, (that is, last Christmas,) I saw this i 
same gentleman, and at once took him to look at Bell's \ 
reaping machine, made by Crosskill, of Beverley, and adopted « 
by him as being on a better plan than any other, he being 
a maker of one of the American machines. My mechanical 
friend was obliged to admit, on m.y reminding him of our | 
previous conversations, that he knew nothing about it, and t 



REAPING MACHINES. 



101 



had only seen a print of it in a book, and thought it would 
not work, so took no further heed of it. This, I expect, is 
about the case with farmers and machine makers generally. 
The farmers set their face against new things, and the 
makers devote a much larger proportion of their time and 
abilities in puffing up and selling their goods than they do 
in endeavouring to improve them, and invent new ones to 
meet the new and improved systems of agriculture. 

Eeaping machines are by no means the recent inventions 
some persons imagine, as it is certain that machinery of 
some kind was used by the Eomans for cutting corn, as 
frequent mention is made of them by the early writers ; but 
whatever description of implement it might be, it certainly 
did not come into general use, nor was it introduced into 
England that I am aware of. 

The first attempt at a reaping machine seems to have been 
made about sixty years since, by a person named Boyce ; 
this machine was placed in a two-wheeled carriage, something 
resembling a cart, the axle revolving with the wheels. The 
cutting action received its motion from this, by a contrivance 
of wheel-work, and consisted of a series of scythes fixed 
to an upright shaft; these revolving horizontally, cut the 
corn, but left it lying in so rough a state that little 
advantage was got from it. 

The next attempt seems to have been made by a London 
millwright, named Plunket ; this was an improvement on 
Boyce' s, as instead of cutting with scythes, he had a hori- 
zontal circular plate, jagged on the edge like a sickle. This 
was found to cut tolerably well, but was inefficient in other 
respects, and a better machine was constructed by a Scotch- 
man named Gladstone, of Castle Douglas, in the stewartry of 
Kirkcudbright, the cutting principle being similar, but a con- 
trivance added, by which the corn was collected and held in its 
place until cut by the circular revolving plate, and afterwards 
raked it Off and laid it in patches upon the ground behind 



102 



smith's reaping machine. 



the macMne. Another feature in it was the placing a small 
circular wheel of wood covered with emery, this was kept in 
contact with the cutting wheel, at the opposite side to that 
employed in cutting, thus keeping the edge constantly 
sharpened. 

That ingenious person, Salmon, of Woburn, next tried his 
hand at a reaping machine, and adopted an entirely new 
principle, for it should be remembered, before his time all 
the machines cut by a revolving circular plate, or disc, or 
scythes. Salmon ivas the first to aj)pli/ tTie cutting action of 
shears, which appears to be the best principle, as the approved 
modern machines are so constructed, his reaper also laid it 
down in parcels as it was cut. 

smith's reaping machine. 

This was designed by J. Smith, of the Deanstone "^Forks, 
Perthshire, whose name is now very familiar in agricultural 
matters. This machine consisted of a circular drum, upon 
the lower edge of which, projecting from the periphery some 
inches, was a cutting blade ; the drum and cutter were placed 
upon an upright shaft, fixed to the fore-part of the carriage 
of the machine ; this was supported by two wheels fixed to 
the axle, on which were placed bevil gear acting upon a 
horizontal shaft, which drove the drum and cutter. 

The drum received the stalks of com upon its surface, and 
being some distance round, were thrown ofi" in a regular 
row. The machine was propelled by two horses, attached to 
a pole in the rear of the machine, the horses pushing it in 
front of them. It cut an English acre in about an hour, 
during which time the cutter required to be sharpened four 
times with a scythe stone. 

Mr. Smith persevered with his machine from 1811 to 1815, 
but at last abandoned it, having too great calls upon his time 
in other directions. 



bell's reaping machine. 



103 



bell's beapinq- machine. 

We come now to a very important point in the history of 
reaping machines, that is, the invention of the E-ev. Patrick 
Bell. It appears that this gentleman's attention was drawn 
to the subject of such machines while at Cambridge, and 
that some years afterwards he constructed one for his own 
use. This machine was tried at Powrie, in the county of 
Eorfar, in 1828, and its capabilities witnessed by a large 
number of persons. About fifty gentlemen and farmers, all 
interested in agriculture, signed a declaration, stating that 
the machine cut down a breadth of 5 feet at once, was 
moved by a single horse, and was attended by from six 
to eight persons, to tie up the corn, and that the field 
was reaped by this force at the rate of an imperial acre 
per hour. 

In September, 1829, this machine was tried in the 
presence of a still greater number of persons, at Monckie, in 
Forfarshire, who attest that in half an hour it cut half an 
English acre of a very heavy crop of oats, which were 
lodged, thrown about by the wind, and exceedingly difficult 
to harvest. 

It was tried in a number of other places in Porfarshire, 
Pifeshire, and Perthshire, and the general conviction appeared 
to be, that it would soon come into as general use as the 
I threshing machine. But this was not the case, for nothing 
j more was heard of it (except in its immediate locality, where, 
I believe, it continued to be used for some years,) until 
1851, when the Grreat Exhibition of all JSTations, as I have 
before mentioned, drew attention to machines for reaping 
corn. So slow had been the introduction of new machines, 
1 that, although this valuable implement had been invented in 
i Scotland for twenty-three years, not one person south of the 
( Tweed, that I ever heard of, had adopted it, and but very 



104 



bell's reaping machine. 



few ever knew that sucli a thing had been invented. A 
few attempts had, it is true, been made during this time in 
England, but not with success, and all these were upon the 
horizontal disc plan. 

To describe Bell's reaper, so as to be understood without a 
drawing, is almost impossible, and the limits of this book, 
and the number of cuts already given, prevent my giving 
one ; but those who desire to learn more of the matter than 
they will find in these pages, wiU find a good description, with 
illustration, in " Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture." 

Bell's reaper consisted, in its original state, of a square 
framework of wood, forming a kind of carriage, which was 
supported on two broad-tired wheels of good diameter. The 
axle upon which these wheels hung passed through the 
machine, the wheels worked loose upon it ; but, by means of 
clutches at each end, the wheels could be made to give 
motion to the axle when required. The lower part of the 
framing projected forward some distance, and was supported 
at the end by two solid wooden wheels of much smaller 
diameter than the principal ones. In front of these wheels, 
and attached to the carriage by iron arms, was fixed a bar of 
wood, called the "fi:sed bar," and upon this was screwed a 
row of triangular blades, something like (in shape) to the 
pointed blade of a pair of scissors, and called the " fixed 
cutters." Between the machine and this outer fixed bar 
was another bar, upon which were placed a row of blades, or 
cutters, similar to the others, except that they were 
lengthened by a piece of iron reaching from the outer 
fixed bar to the inner or movable bar. Between each o. 
the fixed cutters was placed one of those movable, and 
secured by a pin to the fixed bar. 

Upon the axle of the carriage was placed a cog-wheel 
which, with other gear very ingeniously contrived, gave 
motion to the inner bar, causing the movable cutters to 
pass from right to left, and left to right, over those that 



bell's eeaping machine. 



105 



were fixed, thus producing a cutting action similar in every 
respect to a pair of shears. 

Projecting from the machine at the top and over the 
cutters was another framework of a light character, and 
upon this was placed a light reel, formed by placing a flat 
spar of wood from one extremity to the other, of two 
arms which projected from a light spindle, the two ends of 
which were supported on either side of the projecting 
framing ; as there were twelve of these arms, there were con- 
sequently six vanes, or wings, to the reel. The use of this 
was to press upon the mass of standing corn, and hold it 
steadily up to the machine while it was being cut by the 
cutters below. 

This reel was made to revolve at a moderate speed by 
means of bevilled gear, worked from the wheel on the main 
axle to a small shaft, in the end of which was a pulley, which 
gave motion to a corresponding one on the end of the reel 
by means of a gut-line, or strap. Erom the outer end of 
the projecting lower frame-work to the end of the principal 
upper frame, were placed on either side two solid wooden 
rollers, thus forming an angle with the ground of about 
forty-five degrees. An endless cloth passed over these two 
rollers, and as they revolved (by the action of an endless 
chain passing round two pulleys, one at the bottom of each), 
the wheat, after being cut, was carried away to the side, and 
deposited in a row by the side of the machine. 

Such is a slight description of this ingenious implement. 
All the different circumstances under which the machine 
may be used have been provided for by its ingenious inventor, 
and the machine had been brought to a point of perfection 
that is quite astonishing, considering that this was nearly 
the. first attempt at a machine that performed all the 
necessary operations, and was actually the first in use upon 
the shears' principle. 

Nothing much was done in reaping machines from this 

F 3 



106 



Mccormick's reaping machine. 



time (1830) until 1850, with the exception of some attempts 
by Mr. Hornsby, and hj Smith, of Deanston, but they were 
only experiments. 

Tor the Eoyal Agricultural Society's show, held at Exeter, 
in 1850, the enterprising firm of Grarrett & Son, of the 
Leiston "Works, Saxmundham, Suffolk, prepared a machine 
for reaping corn, and took it to Exeter, but through some 
informality it was not admitted. 

This machine was the invention of Obed Hussey, of 
Baltimore, U. S. A., and was the first American machine 
introduced into England. The plan of it was suggested to 
the manufacturers by J. Tolemache, Esq., M.P. for South 
Cheshire. This gentleman had seen the machine at work in 
America, and was so struck with its merits as to advise the 
Messrs. Grarrett to commence the construction of such 
machines for the use of English farmers. The result of 
this advice was the production of the machine taken to 
Exeter, and called by the makers the Tolemache Eeaping 
Machine. The next year (1851) brought forth the Great 
Exhibition, and this machine was taken there by the 
manufacturers, and placed among the various machines at 
their stand. 

In the American department, there had also been placed 
two other reaping machines — one invented and exhibited by 
M'Cormick, and the other by Obed Hussey. We wiU now 
proceed to describe these machines, and the trials made of 
them separately. 

Eig. 27 represents the side elevation of M'Cormick's 
machine ; fig. 26 the plan of the same, and fig. 28 enlarged 
parts to show the cutting action more clearly. 

m'coemick's eeaping- machine. 

The best possible description of this machine is the 
specification itself. 



lOS 



M^CORillCK^S EEAPING HACHIXE. 



Tis. 'IS. 




SPECIFICATION, 

" This invention lias special relation totliat class of machines 
vrhich are worked by horses in cutting or reaping wheat, 
corn, or other grain, and has for its object the better holding 
of the stalks of the grain in a favourable position, while being 
cut and the more conveniently arranging, collecting and 
disposing of the same when cut. 

Fig. 1, is side elevation, and fig. 2, a plan of a reaping 
macliine constructed according to the said invention ; a a is 
a frame of wood of a triangular form, to the front of which 
there are fixed the pole b. and whipple-ti^ees c c. The back 
rail jd, of the frame is prolonged on one side of the machine, 
so as to project about six feet beyond the frame, and the pro- 
jecting portion forms the basis of a platform E ; f and a are 
two wheels upon which the machine is mounted. The wheel 
F (from its position) bears the greater portion of the weight 
of the machine, and is employed for communicating motion 
to the moving parts, as afterwards described, h h h, are a 
set of fingers somewhat of a spear-head shape, which are 
afiixed to the fi'ont edge of the platform, and placed at regular 
intervals apart from each other. Immediately underneath 
these fingers is placed the cutting blade i. which is formed 
of a thin plate of steel, toothed upon its front edge and fitted 



M^C011MICK''S EEAPI^'G rvlACHINE. 



109 



into a grooYe, or into bearings attached to the front of the 
platform. Eig, 3 is a cross section of the rail d, and the 
cutting-blade i, showing the method of attaching the fingers 
H H to the front of the platform, and their relation to the 
cutting-blade. This blade has perfect freedom to sKde from 
one side of the machine to the other, but the amount of 
range given to it is limited by the crank k, to which it is 
attached bj means of a connecting rod l ; m 1, is a bevil wheel 
which is keyed to the shaft of the wheel f, so that both may 
revolve together and give motion to a bevil pinion, m 2 
and wheel m 3, which are fixed to an intermediate shaft if. 
The wheel m 3, gears into a pinion o placed on the crank 
shaft and consequently gives motion to the crank k, the 
connecting rod l, and the cutting blade i. The number of 
teeth of the intermediate gearing which has just been des- 
cribed are so proportioned and adjusted that the cutting 
blade may reciprocate and do its work very rapidly ; p p is a 
large reel or gatherer, which is of very light construction, 
and carries at its extremities four blades e e e e, made of 
thin deal. At the near side of the machine this reel is sup- 
ported by an upright s, and at the off-side by a brace t, 
which is raised upon the back of the platform. "Wlaen the 
machine is going forward, the reel is made to revolve in the 
direction indicated by the arrow, by means of a band or belt 
TJ, which takes on to the hem of the bevil wheel m and the 
rigger v, the latter of which is keyed to the reel shaft. The 
distance of the reel from the platform is capable of being 
adjusted by means of the sliding bearing (upon the near 
side of the machine) which is acted upon by the screwed rod 
b. At the further side the brace t is fixed to the spur t 2 
by means of a movable bolt, so that the brace may be raised 
or lowered at pleasure, by passing the movable bolt into any 
one of the holes (I' h') further up or down in the spur, w 
is a seat for the driver, and x a seat for the person gathering 
the reaped grain from the platform. 



110 



HUSSEY^S REAPING MACHIXE. 



" When tlie macliine just described is applied to tlie cutting 
of wheat or other grain, it is brought to the edge of the field 
(vrith either two or four horses yoked to it) and with the 
platform placed in front, and the horses alongside of the 
crop to be cut down. As the horses advance, the wheel 
gearing is put in motion, which causes the reel slowly to 
revolve, and so prevent the straws or stalks from being 
pressed forward when they come in contact with the cutting- 
blade, which has at the same time a rapid reciprocating 
motion imparted to it by the action of the crank k and con- 
necting rod L ; the straws or stalks are thus speedily cut 
through, and fall backwards on the platform. The fingers 
H, H, H, greatly facilitate this part of the operation, as they 
hold the straws or stalks from yielding along with the lateral 
action of the cutting-blade ; and it is for the more effectually 
accomphshing this object that they are formed of a shape like 
to a spear-head, which causes the straws or stalks to slide 
into the spaces between them when in that position, and as 
the inclined edges at the roots of the fingers (that is, imme- 
diately over the cutting blade) form an acute augle with the 
edge of the knife, the cutting through of the straws or stalks 
is sure to be efiected by the reciprocating movement of the 
knife-blade. Two separate views of parts of the fingers and 
cutting blade are given in figs. 4 and 5, the blade in fig. 4 is 
straight in the cutting edge, while that in fig. 5 is zig-zag, 
or of an indented form." 



HITS set's EEAPIXa MACHIXE. 

As Manufactured hj Garrett. 

This is the implement before alluded to, as having been 
copied by Messrs. Garrett more than a year before. The 
cutting action in this is quite difterent from that of M'Cor- 
mick's, and may be considered a modification of Bell's. 
The corn is cut by a series of triangular knives, placed on a 



HUSSEY^S REAPING MACHINE. Ill 



112 



hussey's reaping machine. 



horizontal sliding bar, intersecting or working between a 
like series of iron tines, wbich are fixed to a wooden 
platform, provided to receive the corn as it falls. Motion is 
communicated to the knives by means of a crank and shaft 
worked by the revolution of the travelling wheel of the 
machine ; as the implement proceeds in its work, the corn is. 
received and cut between the knives and tines and falls on 
the stage, from which it is raked off at intervals by the man 
in attendance for that purpose. 



Fig. 30. 




CUTTERS OF HUSSEY'S REAPING MACHINE. 

A trial of these machines being decided on by the jury of 
the class to which they belonged, they were accordiDgly con- 
veyed to Tip Tree Hall farm, belonging to Mr. Mechi. 

Mr. M'Cormick was there to attend to his own machine, 
and work it under his own superintendance, but Mr. Hussey's , 
machine had no such advantage, being superintended by one 
of the Exhibition porters. The result was exactly what j 
might have been expected : M'Cormick got the prize medal, i 
and a vast amount of credit, and Hussey's condemnation t 
and neglect that it did not deserve ; in fact, the trial at ] 
Mr. Mechi' s was not worth the name of a trial, and the 
hasty award of the medal to M'Cormick is among the i 
least just decisions of the juries ; nevertheless, practical men 
and machine manufacturers were generally favourable to 
Hussey's principle, and considered that, if the machine was 



HUSSEY^S REAPING MACHINE. 



113 



not then in a perfect state, it was capable of being easily 
rendered so. 

Mr. Hussey at length arrived in England, to attend 
to bis own invention, and tbe tbing quickly began to 
assume another complexion, in consequence of which Messrs. 
Dean, Dray, & Co. of Swan Lane, London Bridge, made 
some arrangement with Mr. Hussey for the right to manu- 
facture his machines in England. Mr. Crosskill of Beverley 
undertook their manufacture, and these machines having 
achieved some successes that got noised about, Messrs. 
Burgess & Key of Newgate Street placed in the public 
papers the following challenge : — 

"Public Challenge to Makers and Vendors of Eeaping 
Machines. — We the undersigned agents for Mr. M'Cormick, 
having observed sundry advertisements and circulars com- 
plaining of the decision of the Jurors of the Great Exhi- 
bition of 1851, in favour of Mr. M'Cormick's reaper, and of 
the reports given in the public journals of the trials which 
led to such decision, do hereby give notice to Messrs. "Wm. 
Dray & Co., Messrs. Garrett & Son, Mr. 0. Hussey, and all 
other makers and vendors of reaping machines whatsoever, 
that M'Cormick's [Reaper will be tried at the Cleveland 
Society's Show at Marton, Middlesborough, near Stockton-on- 
Tees, on the 25th inst, and publicly challenge them, or any 
of them, to meet us there with their machines, for the purpose 
of a comparative trial of the respective merits of each, 
to be determined by the Chairman and Council of the 
Cleveland Society, or by such judge or judges as the said 
Society may appoint. — Burgess & Key, 103, Newgate 
Street, London." 

The challenge was immediately accepted, and both it and 
the reply extensively circulated. 

" In answer to an advertisement which appeared in the 
Times of the 18th, from Messrs. Burgess & Key, giving us 
a public challenge to a trial of the American reaping 



114 



HUSSEYS EEAPIXG MACHI^'E. 



machines, Tve hereby announce that we shall willingly accept 
the same, and on the 25th inst. shall be prepared, at the 
Cleveland Society's Show, Marton, INIiddlesborough, near 
Stockton-on-Tees, to prore to the agricultural world the 
superiority of Hussey's Eeaper, for general farming pur- 
poses. We stipulate, however, that the machines shall be 
tested, not only on a particular patch of good upstanding 
grain, where they might perhaps prove equal, but on an 
average variety of condition, as to short and laid corn, &c., 
such as a farmer will usually meet with. Its capabilities for 
cutting green crops, such as clover, &c., shall also be proved. 
It must be evident to the farming public that the reaping 
machine which will cut a crop of the greatest variety and 
difference of condition must possess the greatest merit. 
— "Wm. Dray & . Co., Agricultural Implement Warehouse, 
Swan Lane, London Bridge." 

Accordingly, the matter was arranged, and the following 
gentlemen were called upon to act as jurors : — 

Henry Stephen Thompson, Esq., of Moat HaU, foreman ; 
Mr. William Lister, of Dunsa Bank ; Mr. John Booth, of 
KiUerby; Mr. John Parrmgton, of Brancepeth; IMr. William 
Wetherell, of Kirkbridge, Darlington ; Mr. Eobert Hymers, 
of Marton; Mr. Christopher Debson, of Linthorpe; Mr. 
Eobert Eawcitt, of Ormsby; Mr. Joseph Parringtou, of 
Cross Beck; Mr. John Outhwaite, of Bainesse; Mr. Greorge 
Eead, of Hutton Low Cross ; Mr. Thomas PhiUips, of , 
Helmsley ; and Mr. Thomas Outhwaite, of Bainesse. ■ 

The following were the conditions to be submitted to by , 
the representatives of the respective machines : — 

The machines to be tried on wheat and barley, in such ; 
order and for such length of time as the jurymen may direct. ? 
The jury to have fuU power to use any means they may j 
deem advisable in order to put the machines to the severest ; 
trials. The jury, in deciding on the merits of the two > 
machiaes to take into their consideration, 



HUSSEY^S REAPING MACHINE. 



115 



1. "WliicTi of the two cuts the corn in the best manner. 
2. Which of the two causes the least waste. 3. Which does 
the most work in a given time. 4. Which leaves the cut 
corn in the best order for gathering and binding. 5. Which 
is the best adapted for ridge and furrow. 6. Which is 
the least liable to get out of repair. 7. Which at first cost 
is less price. 8. AYhich requires the least amount of horse 
labour. 9. Which requires the least amount of manual 
labour. And whichever of the two machines so tried and 
tested has in it combined the greater number of the above 
qualifications, according to the opinions of a majority of the 
jurj, it is to be pronounced the best implement. The trial 
which took place is thus described in the Gateshead Observe?' 
of the 27th ult. :— 

" Grreat interest centered in the Middlesborough Agri- 
cultural Meeting of the present week. Mr. Philip Pusej, 
M.P., observed indeed to one of his northern friends, that 
the people of Cleveland could not feel more deeply interested 
this year in their own meeting, than did the agriculturists 
of England generally — a fact attributable, first, to the inten- 
tion of Mr. M'Cormick's agents, Messrs. Burgess & Key, of 
Newgate Street, London, to exhibit his American reaping 
machine at the Marton ordeal. Secondly, to the challenge 
which they had given to Messrs. Dray, Hussey, & Garrett, 
to meet them in the field ; and, thirdly, to the acceptance of 
that challenge on the part of ' Hussey's American Eeaper,' 
by the inventor's agents, Messrs. William Dray & Co., of 
Swan Lane, Upper Thames Street, London. 

"It was expected that the competition would have attracted 
a brilliant company to the ground, and so without doubt it 
would have done, had the elements been propitious ; but the 
xjlimate of England, proverbially fickle, attains its wayward 
maximum in Cleveland ; and thus it happened that a drought 
of unusual duration (extending to three months) chose to 
terminate on the very day appointed for the competition, 



116 



hussey's eeaping machine. 



and celebrated its breaking up by an outburst of rain, sucli 
as is seldom witnessed, even under the Yorkshire Hills. 
The drought had left the land so hard that the ploughs 
could not be tried, and the rain marred, to a considerable 
extent, the trial of the remaining implements. 

" Despite the weather, however, there was a considerable 
muster at the appointed place — the farm of Mr. Eobert 
Tawcitt, an agriculturist who combines science with practice, 
in the neighbourhood of Marton and Ormesby, his fields 
fronting the lodge-gates of Sir "William Pennyman, Bart. 

" We observed amongst the company several of the leading 
gentlemen and farmers of the district ; and Mr. Counsellor 
Addison was present as a ' spectator.' After the trial of 
various implements, the reaping machines were tried ; of 
fair weather there was no prospect, the only change was from 
foul to fouler, and foulest. It was now in the second degree. 
The implement jury left Mr. Fawcitt's with other farmers, 
and moved off to a field of wheat, where the rival ' reapers ' 
were standing side by side. Mr. M'Cormick's machine was 
described in our last number. Mr. Hussey's is less com- 
plex in appearance. There is a seat on one side for an 
attendant, elevated above a level platform. The cutting 
machine mows down the wheat, and it falls back upon the 
platform, whence the attendant casts it on the stubble behind, 
and the labourers bind it into sheaves, and stack it. 
Mr. Hussey, the inventor, was present, and so also were 
representatives of the firm of Dray & Co., likewise Mr. Cross- 
kill, of clod-crushing celebrity. It was curious to see on 
the soil of a Cleveland farm two implements of agriculture, 
lying side by side in rivalry, respectively marked 'M'Cormick, 
Inventor, Chicago, Illinois ; ' ' Hussey, Inventor, Baltimore, 
Maryland,' — American competing with American on English 
ground ! Mr. Hussey led off; an attempt was made to 
keep back the eager crowd, but their curiosity was irre- 
pressible — they flocked in upon the machine, so that the 



HUSSET^S HEAPING MACHINE. 



117 



experiment could not be properly performed, nor could the 
jury duly discharge their duties. Police constable Thompson 
did his very best — he was all but everywhere at once ; but 
what avails a police force of one strong, against a concourse 
of Yorkshire yeomanry and clowns ? It was requisite that 
he should have recruits, and a body of ' specials ' came to his 
aid, who succeeded in procuring some approach to a clear 
course. Mr. Hussey then took his seat anew. This machine 
cut down a breadth of wheat from end to end of the field. 
It seemed to us to do its work neatly and well. The wheat 
was cleverly delivered from the teeth of the reaper, and 
handed over to the binders by the rake. 

" But the weather was now at its foulest, and we could 
make no nice examination of the work. A high wind and a 
driving rain cleared the ground more eiFectually than Police- 
constable Thompson and his ' specials.' The cry at the head 
of the field was ' the nearest way out.' The Cleveland rustics, 
weatherproof, laughed at the townsfolk, and jeeriugly replied, 
' Put yeer heads on t' croon o' t' fence, an' tope ower in tit 
lane ! ' Without quite performing a summerset, we cleared 
the hedge, and waited not to see the conclusion of the contest. 
"We soon learned, however, that the stormy blast and the 
descending deluge had cut short the experiment. Mr. M'Cor- 
mick's machine, it was said by some, made no commencement 
of a trial. Others reported that an attempt was made, but 
the horses could not contend with the storm, nor could the 
machinery be brought into effective action." 

The unfavourable state of the weather during this trial 
was considered to have prevented the judges forming a 
sound judgment upon the two machines, another trial was 
therefore fixed for the following Saturday, and the result was 
again in favour of Hussey. The machines were tested on a 
crop of wheat, computed at 25 bushels per acre, very much 
laid, and on barley at 25 bushels per acre, very short in the 
straw, and, if possible, more laid than the wheat. The jury, 



118 



htjSSEy's reaping machine. 



taking tlie different points submitted to their consideration 
in the order agreed, reported as follows : — 

" 1. That it was their unanimous opinion that Hussey's 
machine cut the corn in the best manner, especially across 
ridge and furrow, and when the machine was working in 
the direction the corn laid. 

" 2. By a majority of eleven to one that it caused the 
least waste. 

" 3. Taking the breadth of the two machines into con- 
sideration, that Hussey's did most work. 

" 4. That Hussey's machine left the corn in the best order 
for gathering and binding. This question was submitted to 
the labourers employed on the occasion, and decided by 
them, as above, by a majority of 6 to 4. 

" 5. Their unanimous opinion that Hussey's machine is 
best adapted for ridge and furrow. 

6. This question was referred by the jury to Mr. Eobinson, 
foreman to Messrs. Bellerby, of York, a practical mechanic 
of acknowledged ability, whose report is appended below. 

" 7. That Mr. Hussey's machine at first cost is less price. 

"8 — 9. The jury decline to express a decided opinion on 
these points in consequence of the state of the weather. 

" The trials took place on the farm of Mr. Eobert Fawcitt, 
of Ormesby, near Middlesboro'-on-Tees, who allowed his 
crops to be trodden down and damaged to a very great 
extent, especially on the 25th, when, in spite of the storm, 
an immense crowd assembled to witness the trials. 

" The jury cannot conclude their report without express- 
ing the great pleasure they have derived from seeing two 
machines brought into competition that were able to do such 
very good work, and also at witnessing the friendly, straight- 
forward, and honourable way in which the exhibitors of the 
respective machines met on this occasion. 

" Signed on behalf of the jury, 

" W. F. Whaeton, Foreman'' 



HXJSSEY^S REAPING MACHINE. 



119 



Mr. Rohinson^s Report on Question 6. 

" Having carefully examined both machines, and given the 
subject due consideration, I am of opinion that M'Cormick's 
reaping machine, as at present made, is most liable to get 
out of order. 

" (Signed) Thomas Eobij^sois". 

"YOKK, September ZOth, 1851." 

The following letter, written by a person who witnessed 
the trials, and addressed to Messrs. Dray, may give a better 
idea of them than could be communicated in any other 
way :— 

" Stockton-on-Tees, September 27th, 1851. 

" Sir, 

" Having been in communication with you relative to 
the trial of your reaper against M'Cormick's, and feeling 
deeply interested in the introduction of new implements 
into this district — particularly one of so much importance as 
a reaping machine — I think it is not probably out of place in 
me if I give you the result of my observations during the two 
trials which have taken place. Trom the fact that M'Cor- 
mick's machine obtained the prize at the Grreat Exhibition 
(though I do not j)in mi/ faith upon awards made by agricul- 
tural and other societies), the letter of Mr. Pusey's in the 
Boyal Agricultural Society's Journal, the various newspaper 
reports, &c. &c., it was natural for me to be predisposed in 
favour of M'Cormick's machine ; indeed, Mr. M. had a 
Tprestige in his favour, which, of course, operated against 
the ' Little Hussey.' Previous to starting at Marton, on 
Thursday, the gentlemen representing M'Cormick's machine 
expressed themselves desirous of testing the machines early 
n the morning when the dew was on, believing that their 
! nachine would cut the grain, under such circumstances, and 
! ";hat yours would not. "Well, on Thursday we had a deluge 

I 



120 



HUSSEY^S EEAPIXG MACHINE. 



of rain, the sui-face of tlie land was very soft, and tlie corn 
very wet. Everybody tbere was astonished to see your 
machine brought up the field at a trot, cutting its way to the 
admiration of all present ; it not only cut to the leaning 
corn, but it cut across over the corn leaning to the left of 
the postillion (I presume I must call him). M'Cormick's 
machine then attempted to start (he made two or thi-ee 
attempts), but the attendant confessed it was impossible to 
do so. That there might be no mistake about it, your repre- 
sentatives proposed that theii' machine should go up again. 
The jary said, ' ]S'o ! ^e are satisfied that your machine 
can cat it under the present circumstances ; ' and so ended 
Thursday's trial. That the public might have every oppor- 
tiuiity of examining the machine, it was very properly, I 
think, brought into the show-yard on Friday, and, in the 
midst of a pelting rain, exhibited its movements to the 
public. 

"As per arrangement of the juiy, the trial was resumed 
this morning. On entering the field, the corn was found to 
be not sufficiently dry to cut ; in fact, the jury decided to 
wait until the corn was in such a state that the occupier of 
the field considered it would be prudent to cut it without 
risk of injury from the tying-up. This, then, was a dear 
test of the practical merits of the machines. M'Cormick's 
machine started first, cutting the wheat leaning towards the 
machine. The crop was so much laid from the rains that , 
the ' reel ' was of no avail — indeed it was quite inoperative ; \ 
however, the com was fairly cut through. The stubble was . 
not left so level as to be called good work, and it was not cut 
so near the ground as is usually the practice here with the 
sickle, or scythe ; but I suppose the machine can be altered c 
to cut lower. The sheaves were laid tolerably even for 
binding. It appeared to me that, to fiU the office of raker- 
ofi", was no little difficulty — I mean that it required great 
exertion. Under some circumstances, the plan of raking off 



hussey's heaping machine. 



121 



from tte side is a gi-eat advantage ; tlien the rule, I believe, 
generallj is to bind as it is cut. 

" The machine sent by you was then set to work, and it 
must have been evident to all that the cutting principle is 
superior to the other machine. The stubble was left more 
regular in height, and it was cut much closer. If it had a 
fault, it was too close : there were no ' longs and shorts,' as a 
countryman observed. The sheaves, too, were laid more 
regular for tying-up. The jury then requested the machine 
to be tried cross over the corn, leaning to the left hand of 
the man driving ; here, again, the work was very fair indeed 
~fcf)' tetter than the people present anticipated. To the 
astonishment of many, an attempt was also made to cut the 
wheat laid nearly flat from tlie machine^ and really in some 
parts of the field it cut very fair, in others leaving the 
stubble very much too high. If the wheat had been quite 
dry, and free from weed at bottom, I believe that, even under 
such a very unfavourable state, the machine, if attended by 
a skilful attendant, would have cut and laid the corn quite 
satisfactorily. 

"M'Cormick then made an attempt to cut across the 
corn leaning as described above — indeed the cut was along 
side that made by your machine. As the farmers pre- 
sent said, there was no ' sight in it,' the stubble was cut so 
very irregular ; indeed, it was quite clear to my mind that the 
cutting; arranofements of M'Cormick's machine are defective. 
It requires the straw to be Tielcl to the knife before it will 
cut it. It would be difficult to cut a loose hair with a very 
sharp penknife, but a pair of scissors rather blunt would 
cut it. This simile applies, I think, to M'Cormick's and 
Hussey's machines. 

" M'Cormick's machine was then set to cut the wheat 
leaning from the machine, in the same situation as Hussey's. 
In this case there was a comj)lete failure ; indeed, the knives 
passed over the wheat, occasionally cutting off the heads. If 

VOL, m. G 



122 



HAY-MAKING MACHINES. 



a doubt lurked in tlie minds of any one as to the merits of 
the two machines, this failure of M'Cormick's settled the 
point in favour of Hussej. 

" A trial was then made on barley by Hussey's machine, 
and it cut very satisfactorily. Mr. Pawcitt took Mr. 
Hussey's seat to rake off the sheaves, which he managed 
very well. Some said he would soon beat IMr. Hussey 
himself. 

" I had not an opportunity of seeing M'Cormick's 
machine at work on the barley, but I believe that it did not 
work so satisfactorily as on the wheat. 

" I shall be happy to answer you any questions you may 
ask me on this subject. "Wishing you the success you 
deserve in introducing such a valuable machine, 
" I am, respectfully yours, 

" John" Palmee." 

Eoth M'Cormick's and Hussey's machines have since 
this period received many improvements ; the former an 
arrangement for cutting closer to the ground than formerly, | 
and Hussey's in an improved form of knife by Messrs. 
Garrett, which much improves its cutting action. 

BelVs Heaping Machine. — In 1852, at the Smithfield ! 
Club Show, held in Baker-street, last Christmas, Mr. \ 
Eell's reaping machine was exhibited by Mr. Crosskill, who ' 
had made arrangements with Mr. Bell to construct it for 
him, and thus have the American reaping machines, about 
which there has been so much talk, been superseded by an 
English one invented thirty years before. 

HAT-MAKING MACHINES, OE HAT-TEDDING 
MACHINE. 

This was invented by Salmon, of Woburn, about the year 
1816, and has been modified and improved by several persons : 



HAY-MAKING MACHINES. 



123 



since. Pig. 31 represents one of these macliines as con- 
structed by Wedlake, of Horncastle, Essex. 



Fig. 31. 




It consists of a skeleton cylinder, with a series of rakes 
placed npon it, which revolve as the wheels of the carriage 
upon which it is placed move forwards. "Wedlake's improve- 
ment consisted in making the cylinder in two parts, with 
motion independent of each other, and in so adjusting the 
teeth upon a spring-supported bar, that they yield to any 
sudden inequality in the ground, and immediately afterwards 
return to their ordinary position. An arrangement also 
exists for pushing back the implement without turning the 
rakes, and for raising them from the ground and keeping 
them there while the machine is travelling from place to 
place, or for a few seconds. 

The tedding of hay is most efficiently done by these 
machines, and they are great favourites with the Middlesex 
farmers, and are extensively used in large parks in various 
parts of the country. They are manufactured by most 



ilAKES. 



implement-makers, some having greater celebrity tlian 
others; among these, Messrs. Barrett, Exall, & Co., of 
[Reading; Grarretts, of Leiston; and particularly Smith 
and Co., of Stamford, who have made several improvements, 
which bring this implement to be an almost perfect 
machine. 

EAKES. 

An instrument for raking the ground has doubtless existed 
from the most remote times, as the earliest operations upon 
land were little better than a scratching of the soil, such as 
might be performed with an implement of this description ; 
and ordinary rakes are of so simple a construction as to 
require no description here. 

The Di^ag-Rake is a larger kind of the ordinary rake, the 
cross head which carries the teeth being made large, with a 
row of deep curved teeth placed in it. The teeth should be 
of steel, and fixed with screws, to allow of their being easily 
replaced when broken out or injured. Sometimes wheels 
are placed at the ends of the cross heads, to render them 
more portable. "When still further increased in size, they are 
drawn by a horse, and are in that state most valuable and 
useful implements, and much used on fallows to extract the 
couch grass and other rubbish, and in harvestnig they are 
employed in raking up the loose corn, &c. 

One of the earliest efiicient implements of this kind is 
known as the Suffolk drag rake ; it consisted of a row of 
prongs, supported at either end by wheels, and a simple 
apparatus, by which the prongs could be lifted up at once 
when required, but as the prongs were all fixed fast in the 
cross head which carried them, they were very likely to get 
broken, and in the modern improved horse drag-rakes this 
difficulty is entirely overcome, the implement having received 
a series of improvements from various persons, among whom 
Mr. Sayer of Bodham, Norfolk, and Islv. J. C. Grant of 



howaed's horse drag-eake. 125 



Stamford, are conspicuous. Fig. 32 represents one of tlie 
best now in use. 

Fig. 32. 




Howard's horse drag- rake 

Is one of the best implements of this kind ; a prize was 
awarded to it at Exeter, in 1850, by the Hojal Agricultural 
Society, and again, it gained a prize at the Grreat Exhibition 
of all Js'ations. It is thus described by the makers : " It is 
intended for raking hay, corn, stubble, or twitch grass. The 
shaft irons are furnished Avith a joint and quadrant, by which 
the teeth may be readily altered, so as to rake upon their 
points, or set more or less off the ground. This method is 
to. prevent the rake collecting the soil and rubbish with corn, 
an objection frequently raised against the use of horse-rakes ; 
the teeth being curved or sickle-formed, are much stronger 
than when angular, and the hay and corn works round them 

G 2 



126 



BIDDELL^S PATENT COHN GATHEEEE. 



much more freely ; the bar running under the teeth, and by 
which they are raised, is so arranged that the teeth do not, 
as in other rakes, rest upon it, but allow them to drop into 
any hollow parts of the land. The frame and teeth are 
made entirely of wrought iron ; the teeth work indepen- 
dently of each other, so as to p4apt themselves to the irre- 
gularity of the surface. It is mounted on high wheels, 
which are capped, to prevent the hay, &c., working round 
the axles. 

By means of a simple pull-down lever, which requires only 
the strength of a boy to manage, the rake can be easily 
emptied of its load, without stopping the horse ; the frame 
being made of iron instead of wood, the wheels are brought 
about a foot nearer to each other, which is a great advantage 
on narrow farm-roads, and in passing through gateways. 

An improvement has also been made in this rake by the 
introduction of a plan to raise or lower the lower handle, to 
suit the height of the person employed to empty it, which 
avoids the necessity of stooping when relieving it of its load. 
This implement is useful in dragging meadows after a ilood, 
and raking in clover seed in the spring. 

JSiddelVs Patent Corn-Gatlierer is an implement of unques- 
tionable utility, as it much facilitates the operations of 
harvesting. It will enable a company of harvest men to 
begin loading when the corn is dry, without the usual delay, 
while corn is being raked into heaps, or, as they are called 
in Suffolk, "shocks," for pitching. In the busy time of 
harvest it saves manual labour, not only in gathering up 
swathes (without stopping the horse), but the corn when 
so gathered being compressed, may more readily be pitched, 
and a greater quantity be loaded upon a wagon, and got into 
the same barn room, than if raked together in the usual way. 
In the implements usually constructed for the above pur- 
poses, a great difficulty has been experienced in unloading, 
and it required the application of great strength to lift them 



CAETS AND WAGONS. 



127 



overfhe gathered heaps. One swathe is gathered at a time, 
and the load is left without its being lifted up. 

It is constructed with three rows of tines, fixed to an axf.e, 
supported at either end by wheels. The tines are similar in 
shape to those of a horse-rake, and one of the three r-ows 
alternately begins to gather the swathe as soon as the pre- 
vious one has finished its heap, tlie size of which may be 
regulated as required. — Messrs. Dean, Dray & Co., are the 
agents for the sale of the implement. 

CAETS AND WAGONS. 

Carts, like most other agricultural machines, vary in. their 
form and construction, according to the nature and pecu- 
liarity of the roads upon which they have to travel, or the 
particular character of load they are to carry. 

That any advantage is to be got from using the old- 
fashioned heavy carts and wagons that are found in many 
localities, is a mistake ; yet many farmers of my acquaintance 
still persist in purchasing these unsightly and abominable 
productions, made by village wheelwrights, who are entirely 
ignorant of the true principles upon which carriages ought 
to be made. Many of these old wagons and carts were 
perhaps tolerably well suited to the state of the roads in 
times far back, but, during the last 50 years, not only have 
the great turnpike roads which connect one market with 
another, but the parish roads also, been brought to an 
exceedingly good state, and it is now only the green lanes 
and farm roads (which depend upon the farmers themselves) 

j that are to be found in a state such as to require the car- 

j riages that travel upon them to be constructed in such a 

! cumbrous manner. 

Great facility for removing manure from the steading, und 
carrying the produce of the fields back to the homestead, is 

lij now as necessary as the lands and buildings themselves, as 



128 



CARTS AND T7AG0XS. 



is also the means of convey ing the produce of the farm to 
market ; for it must be remembered always, that those great 
growers of corn in distant countries, with whom the English 
farmer has now to compete, have an immense advantage over 
him, in the facilities they possess in carrying their farm pro- 
duce by water to distant towns and markets, as the site of 
many of the great American and other corn-growing districts 
is upon the banks of great inland lakes and large rivers. 

We have no space in this little book to enter at length 
into the question of wheel carriages, nor can it be properly 
considered as part of the subject under notice. 

That carts possess many advantages over wagons is now 
pretty generally believed, and is proved by the fact, that 
wherever any large amount of work has to be done, carts 
only are employed, as a horse, when drawing singly, will do 
half as much more work than when acting with another ; as 
alone he has nothing but his load to contend with, whereas 
when two are pulling, a considerable amount of power is lost 
in their pulling in different directions, and more or less at 
particular moments. Three horses will certainly do more 
work in single horse carts, than four in two-horse carts, and 
when the work is regular, and along tolerably even roads, a 
great saving will take place with one and two-horse carts as 
compared with wagons with three and four horses, though 
for very long journeys, and peculiar descriptions of mer- 
chandise, wagons properly constructed may be preferable, 
but this case does not apply to the farmer. In Scotland 
one and two-horse carts only are used, and the same is the 
case throughout all the best cultivated districts of England. 
In shifting earth, and in the carriage of building materials, 
contractors and builders always employ one or two- 
horse carts, and never wagons. Harvesting may also be 
done with carts, properly constructed, better than in any 
other way. 

Carts and wagons are now constructed by most agricul- 



CROSSKILL^S MODEL ONE-HOESE CART. 129 



tural macliinists, with every attention to strength and 
lightness, while the peculiarities of any particular locality 
are carefully considered, should any such exist. The forma- 
tion of the wheels being the most important part of the cart 
or wagon, a factory has been established by Mr. Crosskill 
of Beverley and Liverpool for manufacturing his improved 
wheels ; these are sold in sets to the local makers, who 
mount the cart and wagon bodies of their make upon them, 
and great benefit and superiority of the carriage is obtained ; 
it being impossible for small makers to compete in price with 
Mr. Crosskill in the construction of wheels, where every- 
thing is done on a large scale, and the parts made with 
mathematical accuracy. Wheels of any size are made by 
machinery, constructed expressly for the purpose. They 
have iron naves, called balled naves. The arms are turned 
perfectly true by self-adjusting machinery, and after heing 
case-hardened, are fitted complete to a wrought iron axle. 
The spokes are made of well-seasoned English oak, driven 
into the naves by a powerful machine, and then fitted into a 
lathe, for turning the end of each double-shanked spoke to 
fit into double-shouldered sockets, bored with equal precision 
in the felloes, which are of ash, sawn out, segmented, and 
turned by machinery. The hoop-tires are bent, cut, bevilled, 
fitted, and hooped in the same manner. 



CEOSSXILL's model 0]S"E-H0ESE caet. 

This is perhaps one of the very best specimens of a cart 
that could be found, and is particularly recommended, as a 
generally useful one, and adapted better than any other 
for the everyday wants of the farmer. They run exceeduigly 
light and easy with heavy loads, and are equally well adapted 
for the farm roads as they are for those macadamised; 
everything is constructed with a view to economise materials, 
and acquire lightness without sacrificing strength. It is fitted 



130 



FARM RAILWAYS. 



with the patent wheels, tu'e 2| by f , and every requisite for 
rendering it generally useful, while the price is not more than 
for one of the clumsy contrivances of the village wheel- 
wright. About thirteen pounds is the price of one to 
carry 30 cwt., and fitted complete with harvest shelvings 
or staves. 

They are made of a variety of sizes, to carry from 30 cwt. 
to 60 cwt. Some of them have strong springs, portable 
covers and seats, self-acting tailboards, &c. 

FAEil EAILWATS. 

But little has at present been done towards the general 
introduction of farm railways ; nevertheless some of the 
leading agriculturists have laid them down, and express 
themselves much pleased with the result. 

Mr. Crosskillj of Beverley, has contrived a system of rail- 
way that is at once extremely cheap, durable, and portable, 
with turntables, points, and curved pieces complete ; at once 
forming a most admirable substitute for the bad roads, 
lumbering waggons, clumsy carts, and teams of heavy horses 
that are always to be met with on English farms, only half 
loaded, yet up to their knees and axles in mud and 
earth, and doing but little work, while consuming much 
valuable time. The railway of Mr.Crosskill is constructed in 
lengths of 15 feet by 2 feet 11 inches wide, and 2 feet 
6 inches in gauge ; the ends fitting into iron sockets. 

The rails are of wood (the best red deal), edged with iron, 
and strongly put together. 

The trucks are made to carry about 10 or 15 cwt. of 
turnips, and are especially adapted for carrying manure, 
marl, lime, &c., and removing every description of root- 
crop. 

It can be removed or laid down with the greatest facihty, 
as two active boys will move it one hundred yards farther 



TAmi RAILWAYS . 131 

on, and replace it, in less than ten minutes. To reduce the 
cost for delivery, bj rail or vessel, the rails are packed up 
for delivery in packages 15 feet long, 12 inches square, and 
weighing 4f cwt. 

Sets of ironwork only are supplied where parties may 
wish to use their own timber. 

Cost of a Portable Farm Railway, to carry 15 cwt. Loads. 



£ s. d. 

100 yai-ds, or 20 lengths of rail at 2.5. 6d per yard . 12 10 0 

Truck with end tipper 5 0 0 

Truck to tip on either side 5 0 0 

1 turntable ..500 

27 10 0 



Extras. 

2 sets of points with double rails 15 feet long . .500 
2 sets of double rails to join the double lines, each 15 

feet long 300 

2 turning curves to join a double line^ each 10 feet long 10 0 
4 turning curves, to branch off the straight line . .200 

3S 10 0 



Cost of a Permanent and Portahle Farm Railway, to carry 40 cwt. Loads. 



Mr, Crosskill will engage to lay permanent rails with 
wood sleepers, fitted three feet in gauge, including 
all materials and labour, except carriage and one 
man's travelling expenses, per yard . . . .050 

Portable rails with wood sleepers, in 12 feet lengths, 
fitted 3 feet in gauge, for two men to carry and lay 
down from the permanent rails across any part of the 
field, at per yard 0 4 6 

A double line, with sets of points, curves, and entu-e 

connecting rails, about 55 yards run, at per yard . 0 10 0 

Sets of ironwork, for one 1 5 feet length, with dry nails, 
per yard .026 



132 TAEil EAILWAYS. 

£ s. d. 

Sets of wheels and axles, for railway trucks, eacli set . 3 10 0 
Tiimtables for gateways of any field, or homestead 

entrances 7100 

Trucks to carry 40 cwt, ofeai-th, manm-e, &c. . . . 7 10 0 

Trucks with harvest frames, complete . . . . 9 10 0 




This is an exceedingly efficient machine, answering Loth 
the pui'pose of a fire-engine and a pump for spreading or 
forcing liquid manure on the land. It is manufactured by 
Merryweather, of Long Acre, for the inventor. 



ERADBrBV AND EYAXS, PEIXTER3, WH1T£1'RIAJ5.«, 



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with a Description of the numerous Works illustrated, viz : — Aberdeen, Bideford, 
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Sunderland, and several others ; with copies of the Contract, Drawings and Specifi- 
cation in each case. 



2 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 



Humber s Modern Engineering. First Seines, 

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
ING, 1863. Comprising Civil, JSIeclianical, Marine, Hydraulic, 
Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By Wii.LiAM 
HuMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double 
Plates, draATO to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John 
Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., 6cc. Price 3/. 3^-. half morocco. 

Lisi of the Plates. 

NAME AXD DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAJIE OF ENGINEER. 

Victoria Station and Roof— L. B.&S. C. Rail. i to 8 Mr. K Jacomb Hood, C.E, 

Southport Pier c and lo Mr. James Brunlees, C.E. 

Victoria Station and Roof— L. C. & D. oc G. W. 

Railways iitoi5A Mr. John Fowler, C.E. 

Roof of Cremorne Music Hall 16 Mr. William Humber, C.E. 

Bridge over G. N. Railway 17 Mr. Joseph Cubitt, C.E. 

Roof of Station— Dutch Rhenish Railway .. iSandig Mr. Euschedi, C.E. 
Bridge over the Thames — West London E.\:- 

tension Railway 20 to 24 Mr. William Baker, C.E. 

Armour Plates 25 Mr. James Chalmers, C.E. 

Suspension Bridge, Thames 26 to 29 Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C.E. 

The Allen Engine 50 Mr. G. T. Porter, M.E. 

Suspension Bridge, Avon 31 to 33 Mr. John Hawkshaw, C E, 

and W. H. Barlow, C.E. 

Underground Railway 34 to 36 Mr. John Fowler, C.E. 

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 



" Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour \^^th many who desire 
to preser\-e in a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the 
guidance of the contractors for manj^ important engineering works." — Engineer. 

Hitrnbers Modern Engineering. Second Series. 

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
ING, 1864 ; with Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, 
C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c. Price 3/. 3^-. half morocco. 

List of the Plates. 

NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OK ENGINEER. 

Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin i to 15 Mr. G. F. Lvster, C.E 

Charing Cross Station Roof — C. C. Railu a}-. 16 to 18 Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E. 

Digswell Viaduct— Great Northern RaiUvay. 19 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. 

Robbery Wood Viaduct— Great N. Railway'. 20 ^Ir. J. Cubitt, C.E. 

Iron Permanent Waj^ zoa 

Clj'dach Viaduct — Merthyr, Tredegar, and 

Abergavenny Railway 21 Mr. Gardner, C.E. 

Ebbw Viaduct ditto ditto ditto 22 Mr. Gardner, C.E. 

College Wood Viaduct — Cornwall Railway . . 23 J^Ir. Brunei. 

Dublin Winter Palace Roof .'. . . 24 to 26 Messrs. Ordish& Le Feuvre, 

Bridge over the Thames— L. C. & D. Railw. 27 to 32 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. 

Albert Harbour, Greenock 33 to 36 IMessrs. Bell & IMIller. 

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 



" A resume of all the more interesting and irnportant works latelj' completed in Great 
Britain ; and containing, as it does, carefully executed drawings, with full working 
details will be found a valuable accessory- to the profession at large." — Engineer. 

"Mr. Humber has done the profession cood and true service, by the fine collection 
of examples he has here brought before the profession and the public." — Practical 
Mec/uinics' JaiirJial. 



WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 3 



Humbers Modern Engi7ieeri7ig . Third Series. 

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN EXGIXEER- 
ING, 1S65. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, drawn to a large 
scale, and Photographic Portrait of J. R. 2vl "Clean, Esq., late Pre- 
sident of the Institution of Ci\il Engineers. Price 3/. 3J-. half 
morocco. 

Lid of Platis and Diagrams. 



Bridgia over River Lea. 



Bridge ever 



;r Lea. 



„ane, 
V and 



MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. 
North Side. 

Map showing Interception of Sev\-ers. 

Middle Level Sewer. Sewer nnder Re- 
gent's Canal. 

Middle Level Sewer. Junction with. Fleet 
Ditch. 

OutfaU Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. 

Elevation. 
Outfan Sewer, 

Details. 
Outfall Sewer, 

Details. 
Outfall Sewer. Bridge : cr 

North Woolwich Raii vay . ; 

Barking Railway Junc:icn. 
Outfall Sewer. Bridge eve 

Barking Railwaj-. Elevation. - 
OutfaU Sewer. Bridge over Bow and 

Barking Railway. Details. 
OutfaU Sewer. Bridge over Bow and 

Barking Railway. Details. 
OutfaU Sewer. Bridge over East London 

Waterworks' Feeder. Elevation. 
Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London 

Waterworks' Feeder. Details. 
Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Plan. 
OutfaU Sewer. Reservoir. Section. 
OutfaU Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet. 
Outfall Sewer. Penstocks. 

South Side. 
OutfaU Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. 



Bov,- and 



OutfaU Sewer. 
OutfaU Sewer. 
Plan. 



Bermondsey Branch. 
Reserv-oir and Outlet. 



MAIN DP^INAGE, METROPOLIS, 

ccntimied — 
OutfaU Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. 
Details. 

Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. 
Details. 

OutfaU Sewer. Resen-oir and Outlet. 

Details. 
Outfall Sewer. Filth Hoist. 
Sections of Sevrers (North and South 

Sides] . 

THAMES EMBANKilENT. 

Section of River Wall. 

Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Elevation. 

Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. DetaUs. 

Landing Stairs between Charing Cross 
and Waterloo Bridges. 

York Gate. Front Elevation. 

York Gate. Side Elevation and Details. 

Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Sereet Sewer. 
I Details. 

Overfiovrand Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. 
! Penstock. 

I Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. 
I Penstock. 

j Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. Eleva- 
i tion. 

Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- 
i tails. 

1 Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- 
! tails. 

■ Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections. 

' Gullies. Plans and Sections. 

' RoUing Stock. 

i Granile and Iron Forts. 



With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 



Ojjinions of tke Press. 

" Mr. number's works— especially his annual ' Record,' v^-ith which so many of our 

readers are now familiar — fill a void occupied by no other Ijranch of literature 

The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear 
representations of the two great works carried out by our Metropohtan Board will 
obtain Mr. number's last volume. " — Engi-neeHng. 

" No engineer, architect, or contractor should fail to preserve these records of works 
which, for magnitude, have not their parallel in the present day, no student in the 
profession but should carefuUy study the details of these great works, which he may be 
one day called upon to imitate." — Mecka?iics' Magazine. 

" A work highly creditable to the industry of its author The volume is quite 

an encyclopaedia for the study of the student who desires to master the subject of 
I mtmicipal drainage on its scale of greatest development."— Frach'cal MecJuxnics 
; Jourtuil. 



I 



4 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 



Humberts Modern Engineering. Fourth Seizes. 

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
ING, 1866. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large 
scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, Esq., President 
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3J. half-morocco. 

List of the Plates and Dia^^rams. 

NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER, 

Abbey iSIills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, 

IMetropolis i to 4 Mr. Bazalgette, C.E. 

Barrow Docks 5 to 9 Messrs. M'Clean & Stiilman, 

Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Valparaiso [C. E. 

Railway 10, ir Mr. W. Loyd, C.E. 

Adams' Locomotive, St. Helen's Canal Railw. 12, 13 Mr. H. Cross, C.E. 
Cannon Street Station Roof, Chariiig Cross 

Railway 14 to 16 Mr. J. Hawkshaw, C.E. 

Road Bridge over the River Moka 17, 18 'Mr. H. Wakefield, C.E. 

Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia .... ig Mr. Siemens, C.E. 
Viaduct over the River Wj-e, Midland Raihv. 20 to 22 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E. 
St. Germans Viaduct, Cornwall Raihvay .... 23, 24 ]\Ir. Bnmel, C.E. 

Vv'rought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Eell 25 Mr. J. Coode, C.E. 

]\IilhvalI Docks 26 to 31 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and 

William Wilson, C.E. 

Mllroy's Patent Ex-cavator 32 Mr. MiIroj% C.E. 

Metropolitan District Railway 33 to 38 Jilr. J. Fowler, Engineer-:n- 

Chief, and Mr. T. M. 

Johnson, C.E. 

Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters A to c — - 

The Letterpress comprises — 

A concluding article on Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters, with 
Illustrations and detailed descriptions of the Breakwater at Cher- 
bo\:rg, and other important modern works ; an article on the 
Telegraph Lines of Mesopotamia ; a full description of the Wrought- 
iron Diving Cylinder for Ceylon, the circumstances under which it 
was used, and the means of working it ; full description of the 
MiUwall Docks : &c., &c., «S:c. 



Opinions of the Press. 

" Mr. Humber's ' Record of Modern Engineering ' is a work of peculiar value, as 
well to those who design as to those who study the art of engineea-Ing construction. 
It embodies a vast amount of practical Information in the form of full descriptions and 
workmg drawings of all the most recent and noteworthy engineering works. The 
plates are excellently lithographed, and the present volume of the ' Record' is not a 
whit behind its predecessors." — Mechanics' Magazine. 

"We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able 
pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well 
known, while its usefulness in giving the measurements and details of some of the 
latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most eminent men in the profes- 
sion, cannot be too highly prized." — Artizati. 

" The volume forms a valuable companion to those which have preceded it, and 
cannot fail to prove a most important addition to everj' engineering library." — Mining 
Jo7irnal. 

" No one of Mr. Humber's volumes was bad ; all were worth their cost, from the 
mass of plates from well-executed drawings which the y contained. In this respect, 
perhaps, tliis last volume is the most valuable that the author has produced." — Frac- 
ileal Mechanics' y our)iai. 



WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 5 



Hiimbers Great Work on Bridge Consti^iiction. 

A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and 
WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including 
Iron Foundations. In Three Parts — Theoretical, Practical, and 
Descriptive. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. 
M. E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, "with 115 Double 
Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous 
additions to the Text. In 2 vols. imp. 4to., price 6/. l6j'. dd. half 
bound in morocco. 

"A ven' valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In 
addition to elevations, plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very 
much enhance the instructive worth of these illustrations. No engineer would wil- 
lingly be without so valuable a fund of information." — Civil Engiyieer a>ul Architect's 

"The First or Theoretical Part contains mathematical investigations of the prin- 
ciples involved in the various forms now adopted in bridge construction. These 
investigations are exceedingly complete, ha^'ing evidently been very carefully con- 
sidered and worked out to the utmost extent that can be desired bj- the practical man. 
The tables are of a ver^' useful character, containing the results of the most recent 
e.xperiments, and amongst them are some valuable tables of the weight and cost of 
cast and wrought-iron structures actually erected. The volume of text is amply illus- 
trated by numerous woodcuts, plates, and diagrams : and the plates in the second 
volume do great credit to both draughtsmen and engravers. In conclusion, we have 
great pleasure in cordially recommending this work to our readers." — Artizaii. 

" jNIr. Humber's stately volumes lately issued — in which the most important bridges 
erected during the last five j-ears, under the direction of the late INIr. Brunei, Sir W. 
Cubitt, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page, iNIr. Fowler, ]\Ir. Hemans, and others among oux 
most em.inent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail." — Ejigimer. 

Weale's Engineers Pocket-Book. 

THE ENGINEERS', ARCHITECTS', and CONTRACTORS' 
POCKET-BOOK (Lockwood & Co.'s; formerly Weale's). 
Published Annually. In roan tuck, gilt edges, with 10 Copper- 
Plates and numerous »Yoodcuts. Price 6j-, 
" A vast amount of really vamable matter condensed into the small dimen- 
sions of a book which is, in reality, what it professes to be — a pocket-book 

We cordially recommend the book to the notice of the managers of coal and other 
mines ; to them it will prove a handy book of reference on a variety of subjects more 
or less intimately connected with their profession. " — Colliery Gtiardiaii. 

" Every' branch of engineering is treated of, aiid facts, figures, and data of every 
kind abound." — ISIecJianics' 2Iag. 

" It contains a large amount of information peculiarly valuable to those for whose 
use it is compiled. We cordially commend it to the engineering and architectural 
professions generally." — I\Ii7iing Journal. 

Iro7t Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c. 

A TREATISE on the APPLICATION of IRON to the CON- 
STRUCTION of BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, and OTHER 
WORKS ; showing the Principles upon which such Structures are 
Designed, and their Practical Application. Especially arranged for 
the use of Students and Practical Mechanics, all Matliematical For- 
mulae and Symbols being excluded. By Francis Campix, C.E. 
With numerous Diagrams. i2mo., cloth boards, y. 

" For numbers of young engineers the book is just the cheap, liandy; first guide 
they want." — Middlesborongh Weekly Xeivs. 

" Invaluable to those who have not been educated in ma.thQnia.iiCs."— Colliery 
Gna-rdian. 

" Remarkably accurate and well written." — A - iizan. 



6 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 



Barlow on the Strength of Materials, enlarged. 

A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 
with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of 
Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. ; and an Appendix on the 
Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes 
and Gradients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition, 
revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R,S., and AY. PI. Barlow, 
F.R.S. , to which are added Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fair- 
BAIRN, and Kirkaldy ; an Essay (with Illustrations) on the effect 
produced by passing AYeights over Elastic Bars, by the Rev. 
Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S. And Formulae for Calculating 
Girders, &c. The whole an-anged and edited by \Y. Humber, 
Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of " A Complete and Practical Treatise 
on Cast and. Wrought-Iron Bridge Construction," Sec. <S:c. Demy 
8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates, and numerous woodcuts, price 
iSs. cloth. 

" Although issued as the sixth edition, the volume under consideration is worthy of 
being regarded, for all practical purposes, as an entirely new work . . . the book 
is undoubtedly worthy of the highest commendation." — Mijiiitg Joiirnal. 

"An increased value has been given to this verj' valuable work by the addition of 
a large amount of information, which cannot prove othenvise than highly useful to 

those who require to consult it The arrangement and editing of this 

mass of information has been undertaken by Mr. Humber, who has most ably fulfilled a 
task requiring special care and ability to render it a success." — I\Iecha?iics' Magazine. 

"The best book on the subject which has yet appeared We know of 

no work that so completely fulfils its mission." — Ejiglish Mechanic. 

" There is not a pupil in an engineering school, an apprentice in an engineer's or 
architect's office, or a competent clerk of works, who will not recognise in the scientific 
volume newly given to circulation, an old and valued friend." — Biiildi7ig Neius. 

"The standard treatise upon this particular subject." — Engitieer. 

Strains, Formulcs & Diagrams for Calculation of. 

A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAINS 
in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their 
STRENGTH ; consisting of Formuljeand Corresponding Diagrams, 
with numerous Details for Practical Application, &c. By William 
Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Fcap. 8vo, with nearly 100 
Woodcuts and 3 Plates, price 'js. 6d. cloth. 

"The arrangement of the matter in this little volume is as convenient as it well 

could be The system of employing diagrams as a substitute for complex 

computations is one justh' coming into great favour, and in that respect Mr. Humber's 
volume is fully up to the times." — Engineeriyig. 

" The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good." — AthsncF7im. 

"We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect 
readers." — Ejiglish MecJianic. 

Mechanical Engi^teering, 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGI- 
NEERING : comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, 
Tools, Workshop Machineiy, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufac- 
ture of the Steam Engine, &c. <S:c. With an Appendix on the 
Analysis of Iron and Iron Ore, and Glossar)' of Terms. By Francis 
C AMPIN, C.E. Illustrated with 91 Woodcuts and 28 Plates of 
Slotting, Shaping, Drilling, Punching, Shearing, and Riveting 
Machines — Blast, Refining, and Reverberatory Furnaces — Steam 
Engines, Governors, Boilers, Locomotives, &c. 8vo, cloth, 12^. 



WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7 



Strains, 

THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; 
with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, 
M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
Contents. — Introductory Remarks ; Beams Loaded at Centre; Beams Loaded at 
unequal distances between supports ; Beams uniformly Loaded ; Girders with triangu- 
lar bracing Loaded at centre ; Ditto, Loaded at unequal distances between supports ; 
Ditto, uniformly Loaded ; Calculation of the Strains on Girders with triangular 
Basings ; Cantilevers; Continuous Girders; Lattice Girders; Girders with Vertical 
Struts and Diagonal Ties ; Calculation of the Strains on JDitto ; Bow and String 
Girders ; Girders of a form not belonging to any regular figure ; Plate Girders ; Ap- 
portionments of Material to Strain ; Comparison of different Girders ; Proportion of 
Length to Depth of Girders ; Character of the Work ; Iron Roofs, 

Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, &c. 

IRON AND HEAT, Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the 
Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Grirders, and the 
Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By James Armour, 
C.E. Woodcuts, i2mo, cloth boards, 3^-. dd. ; cloth limp, 2s. 6d. 

" A very useful and thoroughly practical little volume, in every way deserving of 
elrculation amongst working men. " — M ining Joiir7iaL 

"No ironworker who wishes to acquaint himself with the principles of his own 
trade can afford to be without it." — South Durham Mercicry. 

Power in Motion. 

POWER IN MOTION : Horse Power, Motion, Toothed Wheel 
Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, &c. 
By James Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. i2mo, cloth 
boards, 3^". dd. [Recently picblished. 

" Numerous illustrations enable the author to convey his meaning as explicitly as 
it is perhaps possible to be conveyed. The value of the theoretic and practical know- 
ledge imparted cannot well be over estimated. " — Newcastle JV<;ekly Chronicle. 

Metallurgy of Iron. 

A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con- 
taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of 
Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the 
Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth 
Edition, revised and much enlarged. i2mo., cloth boards, 5 J. 6d. 

[^Just published. 

" Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important 
points, while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into." — 
Standard. 

Trigonometrical Surveying. 

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A 
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo^ 
graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon- 
naissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy 
.and Practical Astronomy, and Formulas and Tables for Facilitating 

I their Calculation. By Lieut-General Frome, R.E., late In- 
spector-General of Fortifications, &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, 
thoroughly Revised, and partly Re-written, By Captain Charles 

|i Warren, R.E., F.G.S, With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, 

i, royal 8vo, price i6.r. oloth. 



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Hydraulics. 

HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMUL.^ 
for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, 
Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General 
Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, 
Water Supply for Towns and jSIiU Power. By John Neville, 
Civil Engineer, IM.R.LA. With numerous Woodcuts. Third 
Edition, carefully revised, with considerable Additions. 

\_X early ready. 

Drawing for E^igineers, &c. 

THE WORKMAN'S ISIANUAL OF ENGINEERING 
DRAWING. By John Maxtox, Instructor in Engineering 
Drawing, South Kensington. Second Edition, carefully revised. 
With upwards of 300 Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, 
strongly bound, ^. 6d. 

" Even accomplished draughtsmen will find in it much that •w'ill be of use to them. 
A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — Engitieering. 

"An indispensable book for teachers of engineering drawing." — Mechanics* 
lilagazine. 

Levelling. 

A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of 
LEVELLING ; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway 
and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Rokds ; with Mr. 
Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, 
F.G.S., M, Inst. C.E. Fifth Edition, veiy carefully re\'ised, with 
the addition of Mr. Law's Px-actical Examples for Setting out 
Railway Ounces, and Mr. Trautwine's Field Practice of Laymg 
out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 
%s. 6d. cloth. %* Trautwine on Curves, separate, price $s. 

" One of the most important text-books for the general sur\^eyor, and there is 
scarcely a question connected with levelling for which a solution would be sought but 
that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting the volume." — Mining- Joui-naL 

" The text-book on levelling m most of oiu" engineering schools and colleges." — 
E^igineer. 

"The publishers have rendered a substantial ser\nce to the profession, especially to 
the younger members, hy bringing out the present edition of Mr. SImms's useful work." 
— Engineering. 

Earthzuork. 

EARTHWORK TABLES, showing the Contents in Cubic Yards 
of Embanhments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths i:p to an 
average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis 
Campin, C.E. Cr. 8vo'. oblong, ^s. cloth. [just Fublis/ud. 

'• Creditable to both the authors and the publishers. . . . The way in which 
accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three elements, 
two of which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." — Athoicrum. 
" Likely to be of considerable service to engineers." — Building 2\ t ws. 
"Practical ir;ustrations of the tabulated quantities are given, which make the 
working of the tables easy to the most inexperienced. The work is excellently 
got up.'and the tvpe is remarkably clear ; and contractors, builders, and engmeers 
sho\AA ni.i\ie\yith.o\xt it."'— Bitiiders' U^^ckly Ee^ofie)-. 

" Two additions, one subtraction, and four multiplications, with the use of 
the tables suffice to determine the quantity with considerable accuracy in any 
piece of earthwork ; and, as the tables are of pocket-book size and very legibly- 
printed, they cannot fail to come into general usq."— Mining Jour^ial. 



WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 9 



Strength of Cast Iron, &c. 

A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON 
and OTHER METALS. By the late Thomas Tredgold, Mem. 
Inst. C.E., Author of "Elementary Principles of Carpentry," &c. 
Fifth Edition, Edited by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S. ; to 
which are added EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES on the 
STRENGTH and OTHER PROPERTIES of CAST IRON. 
By the EDITOR. The whole Illustrated with 9 Engravings and 
numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, \2s. cloth. 

%* Hodgkinson's Experimental Researches on the 
Strength and Other Properties of Cast Iron may be had 
separately. With Engravings and Woodcuts. 8vo, price ds. cloth. 

The High- P res stir e Steam E^igine. 

THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition 
of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved 
System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and 
Economy, By Dr. Ernst Alban, Practical Machine Maker, 
Plau, Mecklenberg. Translated from the German, with Notes, by 
Dr. Pole, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E., &c. &c. With 28 fine Plates, 
8vo, i6j. dd. cloth. 

"_A work like this, which goes thoroughly into the examination of the high-pressure 
engine, the boiler, and its appendages, &c., is exceedingly useful, and deserves a place 
in every scientific library. "—>S"/m;« Shipping Chronicle. 

Steam Boiters. 

A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Con- 
struction, and Economical Working. By Robert Wilson, late 
Inspector for the Manchester Steam Users' Association for the 
Prevention of Steam Boiler Explosions, and for the Attainment of 
Economy in the Application of Steam. i2mo, cloth boards, 328 
pages, price 6s. 

Tables of Curves. 

TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES 
for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander 
Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a 
cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, price 3j-. dd. 
" Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaye^ 
the hands free to manipulate the instrument — no small advantage as regards the rapidity 
of work. They are clearly printed, and compactly fitted into a small case for the 
pocket — an arrangement that will recommend them to all practical men." — Engineer. 

" Very handy : a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these 
cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." — AtliencEnm. 

Laying Out Curves. 

THE FIELD PRACTICE of LAYING OUT CIRCULAR 
CURVES for RAILROADS. By John C. Trautwine, C.E. 
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Engineering Fieldwork. 

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i 



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Field-Book for Engineers. 

THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURYEYOR'S, and CON- 
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Ea7^thwo7^k, Measurement and Calcitlation of. 

A MANUAL on EARTH\YORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, 
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required in the engineers' contractor's offices." — Artizatt. 

Harbours. 

THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS : A 
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With 20 Plates and numerous Cuts. Small 4to, \^s. cloth. 

Mathematical and Drawing Instrtmtents. 

A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPAL MATHEMATICAL 
AND DRAWING INSTRUMENTS employed by the Engineer, 
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Bridge Co7istructioii in Masonry, Ti7nber, & Iron. 

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Mathematical Instrtiments, their Construction, &c. 

MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS : their CONSTRUC- 
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Oblique Arches, 

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Obliqtce Bridges. 

A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE 
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Barlow, M, Inst. C.E. Imperial Svo, 12s. cloth. 

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Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. 

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Proctor, A. I.N. A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 
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Nezv York Monthly Record. 

V/eales Dictionary of Terms. 

- A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE,^ 
BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, 
ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By John Weale. 
Fourth Edition, enlarged and revised by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., 
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GraiitJiavi s Iron SIiip-Btiilding, enlarged, 

ON IRON SHIP-BUILDIXG ; with Practical Examples and 
Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 
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with separate Text. i2mo, cloth hmp, also considerably enlarged. 
By John Grantham, ^l. Inst. C.Et, «Scc Price 2/. 2j. complete. 
Descripiiojt of Plates. 



1. Hollow and Bar Keels, Stem and 

Stern Posts. [Pieces. 

2. Side Frames, Floorings, and Bilge 

3. Floorings coiiiin-ued — Keelsons. Deck 

Beams, Gimvvales, and Stringers. 

4. Gunwales ccnii?med — Lower Decks, 

and Orlop Beams. 
Aa. Gunwales and Deck Beam Iron. 

5. Angle-Iron, T Iron. Z Iron, Bulb 

Iron, as Rolled for Building. 

6. Rivets, shown in section, natural size ; 

Flush and Lapped Joints, with 
Single and Double Riveting. 

7. Plating, three plans ; Bulkheads and 

Modes of Securing them. 

8. Iron Masts, -with Longitudinal and 

Transverse Sections. 



Double Lever Punching and Shearing 
Machine, arranged for cutting 
Angle and T Iron, with Dividing 
Table and Engine. 
lilachvies. — Garforth's Riveting Ma- 
chine, Drilling and Coimter-Sinking 
Machine. 
Plate Planing Machine. 
Air Furfiace for Heating Plates and 
Angle-Iron : Various Tools used in 
Riveting and Plating. 
Gun-vale ; Keel and Flooring ; Plan 

for Sheathing with Copper. 
Grantham's Improved Plan of Sheath- 
ing Iron Ships ■with Copper. 
Illustrations of the Magnetic Condi- 
tion of %-arious Iron Ships. 



9. SlidingKeel, Water Ballast, Moulding 20. Gray's Floating Compass and Bin- 
the Frames in Iron Ship Building, nacle, with Adjusting Magnets, <S:c. 

Levelling Plates. 21. Corroded Iron Bolt in Frame of 

10. Longitudinal Section, and Half- Wooden Ship ; Jointing Plates. 

breadth Deck Plan of Large Vessels 22-4. Great Easter?i — Longiradinal See- 
on a reduced Scale. j tions and Half-breadth Plans — Mid- 

11. Midship Sections of Three Vessels. | ship Section, with Details — Section 

12. Z^ir^^ showing Details — Fore \ in Engine Room, and Paddle Boxes. 

End in Section, and End View, 25-6. Paddle Steam Vessel of Steel. 
With Stern Post, Crutches, S:c. 27. Scarbrouzh — Paddle Vessel of Steel. 



13. Large F^j^^/,showingDetails — After 

Efid in Section, with. End View, 
Stem Frame for Screw, and Rudder. 

14. Large F,f.yj-f/,showingDetail5— J/z^'- 

ship Sectic7i, half breadth. 

15. Llachines for Punching and Shearing 

Plates and Angle-Iron, and for 
Bending Plates ; Rivet Hearth. 
Beam-Bending Machine, Indepen- 
dent Shearing, Punching and Angle- 
Iron Machine. 



2S-9. Proposed Passenger Steamer. 
Persian — Iron Screw Steamer. 
ZMidship Section of H.il. Steam 

Frigate, Warrior. 
Midship Section of H.M. Steam 

Frigate, Hercules. 
Stem, Stem, and Rudder of H.M. 

Steam Frigate, Belleroplwn. 
]\Iidship Section of H.M. Troop Ship, 

Serapis. 
Iron Floating Dock. 



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. . . . As good a volume for the instruction of the pupil or student of iron na%"aj 
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his studj- for m.any j-ears, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised, 
will recommend it as one of practical utility to all interested in shipbuilding." — Arjny 
iT.td Kavy Gazette, 

Steam. 

THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containmg Rules for Unpro- 
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N. B. — This little ivo!-k should be in the hands of czpy J>e?-son 
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ARCHITECTURE, &c. 

Co7istruction. 

THE SCIENCE of BUILDIXG : an Elementary Treatise on 
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credit alike to the author and the publisher. " — Eiigi7ieer. 

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Beaton's Pocket Estimator. 

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Villa A rchitecture. 

A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a 
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morocco. Either Series separate, price*' i/. ^s. each, half morocco. 
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amateurs," — Buiidijig News. 

The Architect's Guide. 

THE ARCHITECTS GUIDE ; or, Ofhce and Pocket Com- 
panion for Engineers, Architects, Land and Building Surv^eyors, 
Contractors, Builders, Clerks of Works, &c. By W. Davis 
Haskoll, C.E., R. W. Billings, Architect, F. Rogers, and 
P. Thompson. With numerous Experiments by G. Rennk, 
C.E., &C. Woodcuts, i2mo, cloth, price y. 6d. 



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ArcJiitectiire, Ancient and ?yIodern. 

RUDIMEXTARY ARCHITECTURE. Ancient and Modem. 
Consisting ::' \'iTRl ^CU-. - .i'.-tci bv Joseph Gwilt, 
F.S.A., ^ccc, v.-iili 23 nne c;r-:e:- -::.:=?:' GRECIAN Arcai- 
tecture, by the Earl of A-7:."z::-; :":e ORDERS of 
Architecture, by W. H. Leeis, E^: ; T/.e ^TYLES of Archi- 
*_r Y::'-: — ; C:"n:r:r>. I v'X. Talbot Bury ; The 
i lCY ri: C : Y i ^ Ai Yitecture, by E. L. Garrett. 

i:i cne h:: \\:luniej h^h-bound (pp. i,loo}, copiously illiis- 

trated, price laj. 

*»* .5": /.rAr-^^r/f? A/r. v rv/jr., a.? folUnus, price 6j. £77^a', hf.-hd. 
ANXIEXT AA rHITE :TY7;E. Containing Gvrilrs Yitruvius 
and Abe- Aer.'^ 'luecAr. A:-:h::ecttire. 

X. E — r: . .V r/;c ^7/;.^' of VITRUVIUS procurable ai a 

mod: -. :: ' 

MODERN "architecture. Containing tlie Orders, by Leeds ; 
The Styles, by Bury ; and Principles of Design, by Garbett 

The Young Architafs Book. 

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wigi-it- 
WICK, Ar:' Author of " The Palace of Architecture, ''" <Scc. &c 
New Eci: : . -ed and enlarged. By G. HrsKissoN Guil- 
LAUME, A.\;.:i:;.c:. Y'ith numerous illustrations. i2mo. cloth 
boards, 6^. [j^i Publishsd^ 

Draiuing for Biiildcrs a?id Stude?its. 

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAY'ING for the OPERATIYE 
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By George Pvxe, Author of a "Rudimentary Treatise on Per- 
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CoxTEKTS. — I. Practical Rules on Drawing— Outlines. II. Ditto — the GrecL-jri 
and Pvoman Orders. III. Practical Ru'.es on^Drawing — Perspective. IV. Practicai 
Rules on Li^nt and Shade. V. Practical Rules on Colour, 6:c. &c 

Cottages, Villas, and Country Houses. 

DESIGNS and EXAMPLES of COTTAGES, \'ILLAS, and 
COUNTRY HOUSES ; bfing the Studies of several emiiient 
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In 4to, with 67 plates, price i/. ij-., cloth. 

Biiilde^'s Price Book. 

LOCKWOOD & CO."S P YY A - A^'^ ' ^ Y^RACTOR'S 
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tions of the late G. R. Burxzi.l s BuiYc:^ A:;c l :;ks— for 1S75, 
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The whole revised and edited by Francis T. W. Miller, Archi- 
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WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17 



Handbook of Specifications. 

THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS ; or, Practical 
Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Sunreyor, and Builder, in drawling 
up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. 
Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent 
Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and 
Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &c., &c., and explained 
by numerous Lithograph Plates and Woodcuts. By Professor 
Thomas L. Donaldson, President of the Royal Institute of British 
Architects, Professor of Architecture and Construction, University 
College, London, M.I.B.A., INIember of the various European 
Academies of the Fine Arts. With A Review of the Law of 
Contracts, and of the Responsibilities of Architects, Engineers^ 
and Builders. By W. Cunningham Glen, Barrister-at-Law, of 
the Middle Temple, 2 vols., 8vo^ with upwards of 1 100 pp. of 
text, and 33 Lithographic Plates, cloth, 2/. 2s. (Published at 4/. ) 

" In these two volumes of i,ioo pages 'together), fort>--four specifications of executed 
works are given, including the specifications for parts of the new Houses of Parh"ament, 
by Sir Charles Barr\-, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. 

"Amongst the other known buildings, the specifications of which are given, are 
the Wiltshire Lunatic Asylum Wyatt and Brandon^ ; Tothill Fields Prison (R. Abra- 
ham! ; the City Prison, Holloway (Eunning' ; the High School, Edinburgh 'Hamilton);. 
Clothworkers' Hall, London (Angel, ; Wellington College, Sandhurst (J. Shaw) i 
Houses in Grosvenor Square, and elsewhere ; St. George's Church, Doncaste? 
(Scott; ; several works of smaller size by the Author, including Messrs. Shaw's Ware- 
house in Fetter Lane, a verv' successful elevation ; the Newcastle-upon-T^-ne Railway 
Station i'J. Dobson) ; new Westminster Bridge (Page) ; the High Level Bridge, New- 
castle (R. Stephenson' ; various works on the Great Northern Railway 'Br\'done) ; 
and one French specification for Houses in the Rue de Rivoli, Paris ^VSl. Armand, 
Hittorff, Pellechet, and Rohault de Fleury-, architects). The majority of the specifi- 
cations have illutrations in the shape of elevations and plans. 

" About 140 pages of the second volume are appropriated to an exposition of the 
law in relation to the legal liabilities of engineers, architects, contractors, and builders, 
by Mr. W. Cunningham Glen, Barrister-at-law. Donaldson's Handbook of Spe- 
cijfications must be bought by all architects." — Builder. 

Specifications for Practical A ixhitectni^e, 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE : 
A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with 
an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modem Buildings. By 
Frederick Rogers, Architect. With numerous Illustrations. 
Demy 8vo, price I5j-., cloth. (Published at i/. los.) 
\* A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the 
old standard work of Alfred Bartholomev,- bemg out of print, the author, on the basis 
of that work, has produced the above. Some of the specifications he has so altered 
as to bring in the now universal use of concrete, the improvements in drainage, the 
use of iron, glass, asphalte, and other material. He has also inserted specifications 
of works that have been erected in his own practice. 

The Honse-OzL'7ier's Estimator. 

• THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR; or. What will it 
Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair ? A Price-Book adapted to the 
Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural 
Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Slmon, A.R.I B.A. 
Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. uIiller, Surveyor. With 
numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, with the prices carefully 
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CARPENT RY, ^ TIM BER, &C. 

Tredgold's Ca7^pentry, new, enlarged, and cheaper 1 
Edition. \ 

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : 
a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the I 
Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, | 
Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which 
is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., 
with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also 
numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, \ ■ 
the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, i 
C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor- 
rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (ii of which now first appear 
in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In 
I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2s., reduced to i/, 5^-., cloth. 
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ilbrary, and those who do not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new 

issue." — Binlder. 

"A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car- 
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time, and, as now presented, combine the surest base with the most interesting display 
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News. 

Grandys Timber Tables. 

THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, 
and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. 
Grandy. Comprising : — An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home 
and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements 
for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, 
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" The only difficulty we have is as to what is not in its pages. What we have tested ' 
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Tables for Packing-Case Makers. 

PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial 
Feet in Boxes or Packmg- Cases, from six inches square and 
upwards. Compiled by William Richardson, Accountant. 
Oblong 4to, cloth, price 3J-. dd. 
"Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who use 
packing-cases." — Grocer, " Invaluable labour-saving tables." — Iromnonger. 

Nicholson s Carpenter s Gtdde. 

THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES 
for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles 
essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentiy. Founded on the 
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Dowsing' s Timber Merchanf s Co^npanion. 

THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- 
PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced 
Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from 
One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size 
bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard 
Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given 
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Battens by the Standard, to Squai-e Timber by the Load of 50 Feet ; 
the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal 
Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a 
variety of other valuable information. By William Dowsing, 
Timber Merchant. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3J-. cloth. 
" Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no 
doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it." — Hull Advertiser^ 

Timber Freight Book. 

THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS' 
FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for 
the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, 
Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By William 
Richardson, Timber Broker, author of " Packing Case Tables," 
&c. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 6j-. 



MECHANICS, &c. 

Hortoiis Measurer. 

THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measure- 
ment of Boards, Glass, &c., &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, 
Octagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber. 
With just allowances for the bark in the respective species ot 
trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees, 
&c.; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided 
timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. Compiled for the 
accommodation of Timber-growers, Merchants, and Surveyors,, 
Stonemasons, Architects, and others. By Richard Horton. 
Second edition, with considerable and valuable additions, i2mo, 
strongly bound in leather, 5^. 
"The ofhce of the architect, engineer, building surveyor, or land agent that is- 
without this excellent and useful work cannot truly be considered perfect in its 
furnishing." — Irish Builder. 

"We have used the improved and other tables in this volume, and have not 
observed any unfairness or inaccuracy." — Builder. 

"The tables we have tested are accurate To the builder and estate 

agents this work will be most acceptable." — British Architect. 

"Not only are the best methods of measurement shown, and in some instances 
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Superficial Measurement. 

THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- 
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Mecha7tics Workshop Companion, 

THE OPERATIVE MECHAXIC'S WORKSHOP CO:n[- 
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useful Rules in Mechanical Science ; with numerous Tables of Prac- 
tical Data and Calculated Results. By W. Templetox, Author 
of "The Engineer's, Millwright's, and Machinist's Practical As- 
sistant." Eleventh Edition, with IMechanical Tables for Operative 
Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, <S:c. ; together with several Useful 
and Practical Rules in Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics, a variety 
of Experimental Results, and an Extensive Table of Powers and 
Roots. II Plates. i2mo, 5^. bound. 

" As a text-book of reference, in which mechanical and commercial demands are 
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men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work." — Building Xe-ivs. 

Engineer s Assistant, 

THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S 
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Tables, Rules, and Data. Compiled and Arranged, with Original 
Matter, by W. Templeton. 5th Edition. iSmo, 2j-.6i/. cloth. 

" So much varied information compressed into so small a space, and published at a 
price which places it within the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to com- 
mand the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book 
to the attention of our readers. — Mechanics' JIagazine. 

" Every mechanic should become the possessor of the volume, and a more suitable 
present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." 
— Biiilding A'ezvs. 

Designing, Meastmng, and Valuing, 

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of ME A- ' 
SURING, andVALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS ; containing \ 
Directions for taking Dimeiasions, Abstracting the same, and bringing : 
the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious 
INIemoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the re- 
spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Cai-penter and Joiner, 
Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Wood- ' 
cuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobsox, Architect. New - 
Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc- 
tion, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measure- \ 
ments. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 8vo, lar. dd. cloth. 

** This useful book should be in ever^- architect's and builder's office. It contains 
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" We have failed to discover anything connected with the building trade, from ex- 
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work." — T/ie Artizajt. 

" Mr. Tarn has well performed the task imposed upon him, and has made many 
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building trade." — Colliery Gnardia?i. 

" Altogether the book is one which well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we ■ 
can thorough^ recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. .- 
Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, an3; 
have especially augmented its value to students." — E7igin^e7-in£. 



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Gregory s Practical Mathematics. 

MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common- 
place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly 
for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part I. 
Pure Mathematics— comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, 
Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. 
Part II. Mixed Mathematics — comprising Mechanics in general, 
Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, 
Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of 
copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By Olinthus Gregory, 
LL.D., F.R.A.S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition, 
carefully revised and corrected by J. R. Young, foi-merly Profes- 
sor of Mathematics, Belfast College; Author of " A Course of 
Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, \l.\s. cloth. 
" As a standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled." — Artizan. 
" The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly 
every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. As a moderate acquaint- 
ance with arithmetic, algebra, and elementar^^ geometry' is absolutely necessary to the 
proper understanding of the most useful portions of this book, the author very wisely 
has devoted the first three chapters to those subjects, so that the most ignorant may be 
enabled to master the whole of the book, without aid from any other. The rules are m 
all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly 
worked out." — Builder. 

" One of the most sen,-iceable books to the practical mechanics of the country. . . 
The edition of 1847 was fortunately entrusted to the able hands of Mr. Law, who 
revised it thoroughly, re-wrote many chapters, and added several sections to those 
which had been rendered imperfect by advanced knowledge. On examining the various 
and many improvements which he introduced into the work, they seem_ almost like a 
new structure on an old plan, or rather like the restoration of an old ruin, not only to 
its former substance, but to an extent which meets the larger requirements of modern 

times In the edition just brought out, the work has again been revised by 

Professor Young. He has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few 
paragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical errors which 
have escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is 

possible to m.ake it We have carried our notice of this book to a greater 

length than the space allowed us justified, but the experiments it contains are so 
nteresting, and the method of describing them so clear, that we may be excused for 
overstepping our limit. It is an instructive book for the student, and_ a Text- 
Dook for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to 
•efresh his memory upon them." — Bidlding News. 

The Metric System. 

A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British 
Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the 
Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By C. H. 
DowLiNG, C. E. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, 
los. 6d. strongly bound. 
"Mr; Dow-ling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready 
Reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." — AtheyicEzan. 

" Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal." — 
Guilder. 

? " Resolution 8. — That advantage will be derived from the recent publication of 
iletric Tables, by C. H. Bowling, Q.Y.."— Report of Section F, British Association , 
.\!ath. 



MATHEMATICS 




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Iiiwood's Tables, greatly enlarged and improved, 

TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, 
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other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; 
also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next 
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Rates. By William In wood. Architect. The 19th edition, with 
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count, Annuities, &c., by M. Fedor Thoman, of the Societe 
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* * This edition {the l()th) differs in many imp07'tant particulars 
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of certain numerical errors %vhich a very caj'eful revision of the whole 
has enabled the present editor to discover ; and secondly, in the 
extension of practical utility conferred on the work by the introduction 
of Tables now inserted for the first time. This new and i?}iportant 
matter- is all so much actjially added to Inwood's Tables ; nothing 
has been abstracted f'om the original collection : so that those who have 
been long in the habit of consulti7ig Inwood for any special profes- 
sional purpose will, as heretofore, find the information sought still in 
its pages. 

" Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of 
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find the present edition of eminent service." — E7igi7ieering. 

Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, &c. 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and 
Mechanic; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of, 
various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, 
M.A,, Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. 
With 164 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. I2J-. 6d. 

"No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the 
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factory." — Scots}na7i, 

Compound Interest and Anmiities. \ 

THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ;" 
with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of 
Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and 
Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Intro- 
duction. By Fedor Thoman, of the Societe Credit Mobiher, 
Paris. i2mo, cloth, $s. 

" A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his 
subject." — P7-ofessor A. de JMorgaji. 

"We recommend it to the notice of actuaries and accountants." — AtJie7ieeut7i. 



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AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed 
from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif- 
ferent Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps ot 
Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an 
Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350 
Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols, royal 8vo, extra 
cloth boards, and lettered, price 4/. los. 

"A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly in- 
debted." — Edmburgh Review. 

" The most comprehensive work of reference to the military and collateral sciences. 
Among the list of contributors, some seventy-seven in number, will be found names of 
the highest distinction in the services." — Fohmteer Service Gazette. 



A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK 
of FORTRESSES, MILITARY, MINING, and RECON- 
NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of 
Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown 
8vo, cioth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, price 12s. complete. 

Naval Science. 

NAVAL SCIENCE : a Quarterly Magazine for Promoting 
the Improvement of Naval Architecture, Marine Engineering, 
Steam Navigation, Seamanship. Edited by E. J. Reed, C.B., 
M.P,, and late Chief Constructor of the Navy, and Joseph 
WooLLEY, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Copiously illustrated. 
Price 2s. 6d. Now ready, Vols. II. & III., each containing 4 Nos. 
cloth boards, price 12s. 6d. each. 

The Contribtitors inchtde the most Eminent Authorities in the 
several branches of the above subjects. 

Dye- Wares and Colours. 

THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE-WARES : their 
Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. 

j For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Dry Salters, Brokers, &c. By J. 

! W. Slater. Post 8vo, cloth, price "js. (>d. 

"A complete encyclopaedia of the materia titictoria. The information given 
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practical as well as valuable." — Chetnist and DrJiggist, 

Electricity. 

j A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY; including Galvanism, Mag- 
r netism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and 
5 the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S., 
Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. Fourth Edition, 
' entirely rewritten. Illustrated by 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i/. 4^. cloth. 

" The commendations already bestowed in the pages of the Lancet on the former 
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rarer thing, are popular and interesting." — Lancet. 



SCIENCE 




The Military Sciences. 



Field Fortification. 



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Text-Book of Electricity. 

THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY: in- 
eluding Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity, Electro-Magnetism, Dia- 
magnetism, Magneto-Electricity, Thermo -Electricity, and Electric 
Telegraphy. Being a Condensed Resume of the Theory and Ap- 
plication of Electrical Science, including its latest Practical Deve- 
lopments, particularly as relating to Aerial and Submarine Tele- 
graphy. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistrj- at 
St. George's Hospital. Post 8vo, 400 Illustrations, \25. 6d. cloth. 

"We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good 
index, and a plethora of woodcuts." — Atlienteum. 

" A most elaborate compilation of the facts of electricity and magnetism, and of the 
theories which have been advanced concerning them." — Popular Science Review. 

" Clear, compendious, compact, well illustrated, and well printed." — Lancet. 

" \Ve can strongly recommend the work, as an admirable text-book, to every student 
— beginner or advanced — of electricitj'." — Engineering. 

" Nothing of value has been passed over, and nothing given but what will lead to a 
correct, and even an exact, knowledge of the present state of electrical science." — 
Mechaiiic^ Magazifie. 

" We know of no book on electricity containing so much information on experi- 
mental facts as this does, for the size of it, and no book of any size that contains so 
complete a range oi {acts,."'— English Mechanic. 

Rudimentary Magnetism. 

RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM : being a concise exposition 
of the general principles of Magnetical Science, and the purposes 
to which it has been apphed. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S. 
New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr. 
Noad, Ph.D. With 165 Woodcuts. i2mo, cloth, \s. 6d. 

"There is a good index, and this volume of 412 pages ma^' be considered the best 
possible manual on the subject of magnetism." — MecJianics' Magazine. 

"As concise and lucid an exposition of the phenomena of magnetism as we believe 
it is possible to write." — English Mechanic. 

" Not only will the scientific student find this volume an invaluable book of refer- 
ence, but the general reader will find in it as much to interest as to inform his mind. 
Though a strictly scientific work, its subject is handled in a simple and readable 
stj'le. " — Illustrated Review. 

Chemical Analysis. 

THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA- 
LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the In- 
trinsic or Commercial Value of S-ubstances used in Manufactures, 
in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Author of "Prac- 
tical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's 
"Treatise of Chemical Analysis." Illustrated with Woodcuts. 
{A nezv Edition of this ivork, revised by Dr. Noad, is Just ready.) 
' ' We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly 
affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a 
guide, alike indispensable to the housev/ife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." — 
Medical Times. 

"The ver>' best work on the subject the English press has yet produced." — Me- 
chanics' Magazine. 



WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 25 



Clocks, Watches, and Bells. 

RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, WATCHES, 
and BELLS. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart, date E. B. 
Denison>, LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Author of " Astronouiy with- 
out Mathematics,"' (S:c. Sixth edition, thoroughly revised and 
enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. Limp cloth (No. 67, 
Weale's Series), OfS. 6d.; cloth boards, 5-.c. 6d. 

"As a popular, and, at the same time, practical treatise on clocks and bells, it is 
unapproached. " — E7iglish JI eckanic. 

" The best work on the subject probably extant . . . So far as we know it has 
no competitor worthy of the name. The treatise on bells is undoubtedly the best in 
the language. It shows that the author has contributed ver>- much to their modern 
improvement, if indeed he has not revived this art, which was decaying here . 
To call it a rudimentary' treatise is a misnomer, at least as respects clocks and bells. 
It is something more. It is the most important work of its kind in English.." — 
Engvuerifig. 

"The only modem treatise on clock-making." — Horological JojiTnal. 

'•'Without ha\-ing any special interest in the subject, and even without possessing 
any general aptitude for mechanical studies, a reader must be very unintelligent who 
cannot find matter to engage his attention in this work. The little book now 
appears revised and enlarged, being one of _ the most praiseworthy volumes in 
Weale's admirable scientific and educational series." — Daily Telegraph. 

'* We do not know whether to wonder most at the e.xtraordiuary cheapness of this 
admirable treatise on clocks, by the most able authority on such a subject, or the 
thorough completeness of bis work even to the minutest details. The chapter on bells is 
singular and amusing, and will be a real treat even to the vminitiated general reader. 
The illustrations, notes, and indices, make the work completely perfect of its kind." — 
Stanaard. 

'• There is probably no book in the English language on a technical subject so 
easy to read, and to read through, as the treatise on clocks, watches, and bells, 
svritten by the eminent Parliamentary Counsel, Mr. E. B. Denison — now Sir Edmund 
Beckett, '^2x1.'^ —Architect. 

Scie7ice and Scripttcre. 

SCIENCE ELUCIDATIVE OF SCRIPTURE, AND NOT 
ANTAGONISTIC TO IT ; being a Series of Essays on— i. 
Alleged Discrepancies ; 2. The Theory of the Geologists and 
Figure of the Earth ; 3. The ^Mosaic Cosmogony ; 4. Miracles in 
general — Vievrs of Hume and PoweU ; 5. The Miracle of Joshua — 
Views of Dr. Colenso : The SupematuraUy Impossible ; 6. The 
Age of the Fixed Stars — their Distances and Masses. By Professor 
J. R. Young, Author of "A Course of Elementary Mathematics, " 
&c. iScc. Fcap. 8vo, price 5^, cloth lettered. 

•1 " Professor Young's examination of the early verses of Genesis, in coimection with 
.ir.odem scientific hypotheses, is excellent." — English Churchman. 

"Distinguished by the true spirit of scientific inquirv-, by great knowledge, by keen 

^ : gical abilitj-, and by a style peculiarly clear, easy, and energedc." — Xonco>ifoT>;iist. 
:'■ " No one can rise from its perusal without being impressed with a sense of the siu- 

'^aiar weakness of modem scepticism." — Baptist Magazitie. 

\_ "A valuable contribution to controversial theological Uterature." — City Press. 

Practical Philosophy. 

. A SYNOPSIS of PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY. By the Rev. 

John C.a.rr. M. A., late Fellow of Trin, CoU,, Cambridge. Second 
\ Edition, iSmo, 5^. cloth. 

1; 



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Dr. Lardners Museitm of Scie^ice and Art, 

THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by 
DiONYSius Lardxer, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Phi- 
losophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Contexts : 
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AGRICULTURE, &c. 



Youatt and Burns Complete Grazier. 

THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- \ 
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Spooner on Sheep. 

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